Foreword

Yu Weichao

The book is based on the exhibits of the National Museum of Chinas “Basic Exhibition of Ancient China， ” with 2，333 pictures of precious cultural relics as the main witness. It systematically introduces Chinas long history and culture from the Paleolithic period 1.7 million years ago to the end of the Qing Dynasty （early 20th century）， showing the hardships and wisdom of the ancestors to promote historical development and social progress from multiple angles， as well as the extensive and colorful Chinese civilization， which is a veritable general history of ancient China from the perspective of cultural relics.

National Museum of China

The National Museum of China （NMC） is Chinas supreme establishment that collects， researches， displays， and interprets Chinas fine traditional culture， revolutionary culture， and advanced socialist culture. The NMC is the top palace of history and art and a cultural parlor for China.

The trajectory of human history exhibits a certain uniformity， but the pace of development varies across different regions. Globally， China was once one of the four ancient cradles of civilization， with cultural traditions spanning thousands of years. It possessed a profound and broad character， embodying Eastern civilization while complementing Western civilization. Understanding the course of Chinese history and unraveling the mysteries of its rise， decline， and rejuvenation can enlighten modern people in choosing a rational path forward. Consequently， the contemporary world is increasingly focused on the developmental patterns of Chinese culture， both past and present.

According to paleoanthropology， over two million and several hundred thousand years ago， ancient apes evolved into Homo habilis; by about two million years ago， they evolved into Homo erectus; by 100 to 200 thousand years ago， early Homo sapiens and modern Homo sapiens appeared， completing the evolutionary process from ape to human.

Recent genetic research suggests that the Australopithecus afarensis from East Africa is a direct ancestor of humans from over three million years ago. At least 1.7 million years ago， the footprint of Homo erectus had reached the Chinese mainland. At the Homo sapiens stage， they were widely distributed across most regions of China.

About 10，000 years ago， humans in Western Asia transitioned from the Old Stone Age lifestyle of hunting and gathering to the New Stone Age with primitive agriculture and animal husbandry， forming settlements and inventing pottery. China also entered this stage around 8，000 years ago. The population rapidly increased， giving rise to clan-based central settlements. The matrilineal clan system， based on exogamous marriage， which emerged in the late Paleolithic period， reached its zenith during this time.

Around 5，000 years ago， humanity first entered the era of civilization in the Tigris-Euphrates and the Nile River valleys. At this time， the dawn of civilization also appeared in China. Between 5，000 and 4，000 years ago， areas along the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers entered the Copper-Stone Age successively. The development of wheel-made pottery and jade craftsmanship， along with the emergence of urban-type settlements， hinted at the expansion of social division of labor and the widespread presence of specialized handicrafts. The appearance of massive architectural foundations， large ritual sites， and richly furnished clan aristocrat tombs marked the institutionalization of wealth disparity and the shift from matrilineal to patrilineal clan systems.

In the Neolithic period in China， different regions developed six major cultural areas， adapting to various environments. On the eve of the civilized era， the culture in the Hangzhou Bay to Taihu Lake region was the most advanced.

A severe flood， lasting several years around 4，000 years ago， devastated the most developed cultures along the lower reaches of the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. As a result， the central Yellow River region entered the civilized era first.

In 21st century BCE， the Xia Dynasty， the first dynasty in Chinese history， was established in western Henan and southern Shanxi. The Xia and the subsequent Shang and Zhou （Western Zhou） dynasties comprised Chinas Bronze Age. The central region of these three dynasties was in the Central Plains， surrounded by numerous vassal states. Particularly during the Western Zhou Dynasty， it extended its influence from the North China Plain to the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River， laying a significant foundation for the formation of a millennia-long cultural tradition in China.

In the global context， the bronze civilization of these three dynasties was extraordinarily splendid and distinctive. The system of royal succession evolved from an elective system by clan members to a primogeniture system， shifting from brotherly succession to eldest-son inheritance. During the Western Zhou period， a hierarchical clan system based on kinship and a ritual system that clearly defined social status in all aspects of life， including clothing， food， housing， and travel， was established. To adhere to this system， some of the worlds most exquisite bronze rituals and musical instruments were cast. These， along with wooden architecture， residential systems， and customs in clothing， diet， funeral， and marriage， became unique Chinese traditions， increasingly influencing neighboring minority ethnic groups. Thus， as China just entered the civilized era， its culture had the foundation to form long-term traditions and continuously expand its influence.

During the transition between the two Zhou dynasties， China began entering the Iron Age. New， sharper tools facilitated the development of production and the emergence of commodity-money relationships. Subsequently， after the mid-Spring and Autumn Period， numerous cities emerged. Metal coinage was introduced， and rural communes， based on public land ownership， started to disintegrate. This gradual process led to the emergence of independent farmers. As peoples thoughts freed themselves from the constraints of the communal system， philosophy experienced unprecedented development. Among various schools of thoughts that emerged during the late Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods， Confucianism exerted the greatest influence and became the orthodox ideology governing China for 2，000 years from the mid-Western Han period.

In 221 BCE， the state of Qin， which developed from eastern Gansu to Guanzhong， eliminated other feudal states under Qin Shi Huang， establishing the first unified， multi-ethnic， centralized autocratic state in Chinese history. Qin Shi Huang implemented a system of prefectures and counties across the country， standardized writing and measurements， built the Great Wall， and constructed expressways， laying the political， economic， and cultural foundation for Chinas long-term unity. This foundation was further solidified during Emperor Wu of Hans reign decades later. The concept of “Unity of Heaven and Man，” a key feature of traditional Chinese culture distinct from Western traditions， was also set up as the official state philosophy during this time.

With the disintegration of the village community， private land ownership， recognized by the Qin and Han governments， rapidly developed. From the Eastern Han to the Sui and Tang dynasties， hereditary noble families controlled large numbers of serfs， and large manors， primarily based on corvée labor， gradually became the most important economic foundation of society. The bankruptcy of independent farmers was a precursor to their transformation into tenant farmers， sparking the unprecedented Yellow Turban Uprising at the end of the Han Dynasty and leading to the collapse of the Eastern Han Dynasty. In this context， neighboring minority ethnic groups， especially the nomadic tribes to the north， either moved into the Central Plains or established their own dynasties， leading to the Three Kingdoms， Two Jin， and Northern and Southern dynasties period， lasting over 300 years with divided sovereignties. However， the Han people and many minority ethnic groups significantly accelerated their integration， and unprecedented cultural exchanges with neighboring countries， especially with Central and West Asia， added important elements to the territorial expansion and cultural and artistic prosperity of the Sui and Tang periods.

The Sui and Tang dynasties reunited the north and south and developed into the most economically and culturally advanced nations of their time， increasing their influence on neighboring countries. The Silk Road， initiated during the Western Han， became even more accessible in the Tang Dynasty， facilitating unprecedented economic and cultural exchanges between East and West. Its starting points， the capitals of Changan and Luoyang， became the most populous and prosperous international cities of the time.

The Tang society still based its economy on the manorial system， continuing the Equal-Field System and the Rent-Taxation System from the Northern Dynasties， where people had to pay taxes on grain， textiles， and labor to the state. However， the rent-tenancy system， where rent was paid in shares， advanced and gained importance during the mid- and late Tang period. The Rent-Taxation System was replaced by the Two-Taxes System， which was levied twice a year based on land and property. Society took another step forward.

During the mid- and late Tang periods， the fragmentation of power among regional military governors intensified. After the blow of the Huang Chao Rebellion at the end of the Tang， the dynastys ruling structure approached collapse， followed by the fragmented Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period， and then the concurrent existence of the Liao， Western Xia with the Northern Song， and Jin with Southern Song. At the end of the 12th century， the Mongols north of the desert rose to prominence， establishing the Yuan Dynasty in 1271 and ending the Southern Song in 1279， reuniting the country once again.

Despite sharp ethnic conflicts and frequent wars during the Song period， the dependency of peasants on landlords was significantly reduced compared to earlier periods， especially before the height of the Tang Dynasty， and the rent-tenancy system became the main economic form. Moreover， there was an increase in arable land and new developments in agricultural production and the commodity economy， paper money appeared， and cities transformed from the closed ward system to an open layout with shops and houses lining the streets. These developments prepared the conditions for the emergence of an urban middle class.

The Mongol-established Yuan Dynasty expanded its territory， fostering domestic ethnic integration and international cultural exchange. However， interwoven ethnic and class conflicts， along with the military might of the Yuan， led to its replacement by the Ming Dynasty after about 90 years.

Throughout Chinas prolonged feudal era， each dynasty continually strengthened centralization， reaching its peak during the Ming Dynasty. By the Northern Song Dynasty， military power， official appointments， and financial control were all centralized under the emperor， and the Ming Dynasty further abolished the position of Prime Minister， exerting absolute imperial authority over civil， military， and judicial affairs from the central to local levels. The feudal political system had evolved to its limit.

However， in the economic sphere， after the mid-Ming era， industries like textiles， porcelain-making， and metallurgy saw finer divisions of labor， and regions like Suzhou and Songjiang in the Yangtze River Delta had even hired craftsmen paid daily and contractors exchanging raw materials for finished products. The seeds of capitalism had begun to sprout in these areas. The “single-whip” tax system was implemented for farmers， consolidating various taxes into silver and levied based on the amount of land each household owned. This not only eased the burden on impoverished farmers but also facilitated the development of a commodity-money economy.

In the late Ming period， political corruption was rampant， leading to widespread uprisings， with the rebellion led by Li Zicheng in Shaanxi overthrowing the Ming Dynasty. During this period， the Manchu of Northeast China was rising， establishing the Later Jin state in 1616， renaming it to Qing in 1636， and seizing the opportunity to enter the Central Plains in 1644 after the fall of the Ming， suppressing various anti-Qing forces， solidifying Qing rule. Over a century， they expanded the territory east to the Sea of Okhotsk and Sakhalin， west to Lake Balkhash and the Pamir Mountains， north to the northern steppes and the Outer Khingan Range， and south to the islands of Dongsha， Xisha， Zhongsha， and Nansha.

The Qing Dynasty was the last feudal dynasty in Chinese history. The Qing Dynasty was at its peak from the latter half of the 17th century to the 18th century. During its 267-year rule over China， the Qing greatly strengthened the relationship between the Han and dozens of minority ethnic groups such as the Manchu， Mongol， Hui， and Uyghur， further solidifying national unity. In the early Qing period， agriculture， handicrafts， and commerce all experienced further development， and workshops and handcraft factories with capitalist characteristics increased compared to the past. However， the feudal system had reached its end， and social progress required a change in the social system.

Meanwhile， Western capitalism was rapidly developing， viewing China as a market and source of raw materials. In 1840， Britain first waged the First Opium War against China. Subsequently， Britain， France， Russia， Japan， the United States， Germany， Italy， Austria， and other countries invaded China， seizing large territories and establishing numerous concessions. China became a semi-colonial， semi-feudal society， plunging into a severe national crisis.

However， this also greatly stimulated the consciousness of all Chinese ethnic groups to resist foreign powers and change the feudal system. The Taiping Rebellion from 1851 to 1864 proposed a far more radical peasant revolutionary program than in the past. In the latter half of the 19th century， modern industry， science， and technology began to emerge in China. National capitalist industry and commerce were on the rise， Western capitalist ideas spread， and reformist thoughts emerged， leading the reformist bourgeoisie to initiate the Hundred Days Reform in 1898， aiming to establish a constitutional monarchy.

However， all peasant uprisings and reform movements ultimately failed， prompting people to realize the need for revolutionary groups advocating the overthrow of the Qing government and the establishment of a republic. In 1894， Sun Yat-sen first established the Xingzhonghui among overseas Chinese in Honolulu. Subsequently， similar groups were established in various regions. In 1905， Sun Yat-sen unified various revolutionary groups in Tokyo， forming the Tongmenghui. The Tongmenghui launched armed uprisings year after year， and finally， the Wuchang Uprising in October 1911 overthrew the Qing Dynasty and the feudal imperial system， marking a new stage in Chinese history.

The direction of historical progress is determined by many complex factors. But looking back at the course of Chinese history， one can see that this multi-ethnic community， primarily Han， has profound wisdom， strong cohesion， and the courage to absorb the strengths of other ethnicities. Despite facing several setbacks， pains， and even confusion， it has always managed to recover and prosper again.

Recognizing these characteristics of Chinese history leads to respecting and cherishing them undoubtedly， making them a driving force for historical progress.

A Journey into Chinas Antiquity：

Chinese History in Cultural Relics

Complied by National Museum of China

Blossom Press

March 2024

5880.00 （CNY）