Social interactions in periodic urban markets and their contributions to sustainable livelihoods: Evidence from Ghana

Godfred ADDAI , Owusu AMPONSAH, Romanus Dogkuong DINYE

a Department of Geography, Environment and Population, School of Social Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, 5005, Australia

b Department of Planning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, 00233, Ghana

c Centre for Settlement Studies, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, 00233, Ghana

Keywords:Social interaction Periodic urban markets(PUMs)Sustainable livelihood Social asset Financial asset Physical asset Human asset Ghana

ABSTRACT: Periodic markets are an important aspect of local economies, providing a platform for farmers (producers), wholesalers, retailers, and consumers to interact face-to-face and exchange goods and services.These markets have been increasing in urban areas in Africa, Asia, and South America because of urbanization.The increase of periodic urban markets (PUMs) in urban areas is observed as an index of modernization, reflecting a response to transition process.However, there are limited studies on how social interactions in PUMs contribute to sustainable livelihoods.This study investigated the types of social interactions occurring in PUMs in Ghana, the benefits of social interactions for participants of PUMs, and how social interactions contribute to sustainable livelihoods.This research interviewed 162 participants, comprising 27 farmers(farmers were regarded as producers in this study), 61 retailers, 47 wholesalers from 9 selected PUMs across Ghana, and 27 officers from government institutions and non-governmental market associations to obtain their opinions.We analyzed the interview data using the NVivo software.The results showed that there are seven kinds of social interactions in PUMs,including (i) producer-wholesaler relationship, (ii) producer-consumer relationship, (iii) wholesaler-retailer relationship, (iv) retailer-consumer relationship, (v) trader-driver relationship, (vi) trader-institution relationship,and (vii) trader-international buyer relationship.We found that these social interactions in PUMs enhance sustainable livelihoods by supporting human,social, financial, natural, and physical assets of traders (traders refer to producers, wholesalers, and retailers in this study).Therefore, we concluded that the development of policies to improve PUMs could strengthen social interactions, enabling the achievement of sustainable livelihoods in developing countries.

1.Introduction

Periodic markets are an important aspect of local economy, providing a platform for farmers, wholesalers, retailers,and direct consumers to interact and exchange goods and services face-to-face.These markets occur in a definite place with agreed regular intervals, ranging from weekly to monthly or even less frequently than that.Examples of periodic markets include the flea markets in Denmark and France (Petrescu and Bhatli, 2015), the urban night markets in Singapore and Malaysia (Lee and Paerce, 2020), the weekly markets in Iran, Turkey, and Belgium (Dokmeci et al.,2006; Ronsijn, 2014; Sabet and Azharianfar, 2017; Aram et al., 2019), the farmers’ markets in the United States and Australia (Elepu and Mazzocco, 2010; Freedman et al., 2016), and the periodic urban markets (PUMs) and periodic rural markets in Ghana, Zimbabwe, Vietnam, and Guatemala (Rambanapasi, 1997; Owusu and Lund, 2004; Masaru and Badenoch, 2013; Eff and Jensen, 2014; Yankson et al., 2016; Acheampong et al., 2018).The distinction between PUMs and other types of markets is the source of participants.The participants in the flea markets, urban night markets, weekly markets, farmers’ markets, and periodic rural markets primarily involve community populations near the markets, while the participants in PUMs are from within and outside the market regions or surrounding communities.

PUMs are a key part of many cities, and their numbers have been increasing in urban areas of developing regions such as Asia, Africa, and South America, as more people have concentrated in urban areas in past decades (Sabet and Azharianfar, 2017; GSS, 2022).The increase of PUMs in urban areas can be observed as an index of modernization,which reflects the process of social and economic transition (Bromley, 1998; Dokmeci et al., 2006).As PUMs grow,they attract large numbers of people from many places with diverse socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds.The gathering of large pool of people in PUMs generates social interactions through the exchange of goods and services(Layade et al., 2017; Afukaar et al., 2019; Aram et al., 2019; Davies et al., 2022).The growth of PUMs coupled with the increasing social interactions associated with PUMs constitutes a central part of rural and urban development and should be given attention in achieving sustainable livelihood objectives (Crush and Caesar, 2014; Stobart and Damme,2015; Wertheim-Heck et al., 2015).

Several studies have been conducted on the economic and social importance of PUMs.Angmor (2012) and Stifel and Minten (2017) found that the flexibility, coverage, and location of PUMs in urban areas generate strong social interactions, which provide incentives for trading and value-adding.Storr (2008) and Pottie-Sherman (2011) described PUMs as a social space that functions beyond the limits of pure economic interests.As a social space, PUMs offer the social glue that binds traders together.Traders usually sacrifice their short-term profit maximization to develop and maintain good relations with customers and build strong social interactions in PUMs and enhance their access to market information by joining sub-market groups (Clark, 2010; Pottie-Sherman, 2011; Ofori, 2012).Moreover, social interactions in PUMs increase employment opportunities (Mano et al., 2011; Sch?er et al., 2012).For example, the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa rely on social interactions created by PUMs (Ellis and Freeman, 2004; Sabet and Azharianfar, 2017; Karg et al., 2019).

Nevertheless, the nature of the social interactions occurring in PUMs has been less emphasized in previous studies.Additionally, there are limited studies on how the social interactions developed by PUMs contribute to sustainable livelihoods.To address the above research gaps, this study explored the types of the social interactions occurring in PUMs, examined how the social interactions in PUMs benefit traders (traders include producers, wholesalers, and retailers in this study), and provided implications on how the social interactions occurring in PUMs contribute to sustainable livelihoods.

2.Periodic markets in Ghana

In Ghana, the first periodic market was established in the early 16thcentury at the northwestern foot of Manya Krobo District in the eastern part of Ghana (Addo, 1988), with the purpose of providing varieties of agricultural products for farmers coming from different villages to exchange.A village that could not produce certain farm products in larger volumes has to depend on other villages for those farm products.However, villages in those days were far from one another, so, the village leaders established the Manya Krobo Periodic Market at a designated place where farmers from distant villages could commute to the market center at least once a week to sell and purchase goods and develop friendships.Over time, the Manya Krobo Periodic Market expanded the quantity and diversity of products, attracting more and more people.In addition to exchanging products, farmers also shared knowledge about the growing of crops with various ethnic groups at the Manya Krobo Periodic Market (Addo, 1988).

Farmers in the Manya Krobo District gradually realized that the soil in their villages was not suitable for yam,plantain, and cocoyam, so they moved to the southern part of Ghana where the cultivation of these crops was possible.The migration of farmers brought about an increased distance between their new settlements and the existing Manya Krobo Periodic Market.The migrant farmers, therefore, established new periodic markets at their destinated places,such as Asesewa, Akomakopa, Otrokpe, Sekesua, Bisa, Anyaboni, Apimsu, and Akuse villages, to connect with the surrounding villages (Addo, 1988).These markets were close to the inland ports, which facilitated the distribution of agricultural and manufactured products.

During 1924–1950, periodic markets became relevant to socioeconomic development in Ghana.Traditional leaders took absolute control over the establishment of period markets to raise funds to develop their villages, attract people to live and farm in villages, and build strong connections with other villages (Addo, 1988; Ofori, 2012).Traditional leaders also collaborated with local councils and constructed roads to connect villages to periodic markets to facilitate the transportation of agricultural products (Gordon, 1999).Fagerlund and Smith (1970) identified 155 periodic markets in Ghana during 1960–1969, of which the majority of the markets were in rural areas.Gradually, periodic markets in villages moved to urban areas as the migration of people from rural areas to urban areas increased (Owusu and Lund, 2004; Ofori, 2012).

The number of periodic markets in Ghana has been growing since the 1960s, based on the Ghana 2021 Population and Housing Census Report (GSS, 2022), and until now Ghana has 2330 periodic markets, of which 74.00% are in urban areas and 26.00% in rural areas.These markets open at least 2700 times per week and involve a population of approximately 2.47×107people, becoming nonnegligible economic and social entities in Ghana (GSS, 2022).It should be noted that the 2021 population census of Ghana defines the urban area as a region with a population of more than 5000 inhabitants and the rural area as a region with a population of less than 5000 people.Commodities traded at PUMs are mostly agricultural goods, accounting for 91.23% of all transactions (GSS, 2022).

PUMs in Ghana can be classified as the regional periodic market, central periodic market, and intermediate market by the location of market (Table 1).The regional periodic market, which is mainly located in big cities, performing major wholesaling functions.For example, the Tamale Periodic Market is located on the north-south route, which connects the southern and northern Ghana, therefore performing major wholesaling activities.The central periodic market, which is mainly situated in the capital of district, usually locates at strategic places such as transportation routes, serving as collection and distribution centers for agricultural and manufactured goods.The intermediate market, which is usually situated in towns, connects villages and cities (Mckim, 1972).

Table 1Hierarchical classification of periodic urban markets (PUMs) in Ghana.

3.Materials and methods

3.1.Sampling

This study used a qualitative approach to identify the types of social interactions occurring in PUMs in Ghana, and leaned towards the interpretivist epistemology (Bryman, 2012) to explain how traders interact with other market participants in PUMs.We chose nine PUMs across regions in Ghana for data collection.The nine market centers were selected as they have the largest participants to cover sufficient data of our research (Fig.1).

With the purposive sampling method (Creswell, 2011), we selected 135 traders, including 27 producers (farmers),61 retailers, and 47 wholesalers across the 9 selected markets.In addition, we chose 27 officers from government institutions across regions and non-governmental market associations.The government officers are the heads of Planning and Marketing Department and Security Department of the municipal assemblies, while the nongovernmental officers are the leaders of each market association.

3.2.Data collection and analysis

This study used semi-structured interview that involves a checklist of open-ended questions to collect qualitative data from participants.The interviews were held in the meeting rooms located in each marketplace, and were completed in three months, between April and July in 2020.The questions asked by the interviewers included: (1) the types of social interactions occurring in PUMs; (2) the benefits for traders derived from those social interactions; and(3) how social interactions in PUMs affect sustainable livelihoods.The questions are devoid of information that could identify the participants, so their responses were confidential, enabling the answers given by participants exactly represent their opinions (Bryman, 2012).

The interviews were audio-recorded with the prior approval of the participants, together with notetaking.English was the medium language of communication during the data collection.However, when participants did not understand English, the questions were translated into Akan (Twi), a common language in the study areas.The audiorecorded interviews were transcribed verbatim and entered in the NVivo software version 14 (Lumivero, Denver, the USA).We used the NVivo software to analyze the quotations from interviewees to classify the social interaction types and the benefits for traders from social interactions occurring in PUMs.

To analyze the contributions of social interactions to the livelihoods of traders who participate in PUMs, we adopted the sustainable livelihood framework provided by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).In sustainable livelihood framework, sustainable livelihood comprises human, social, physical, financial, and natural assets (IFAD, 2003).

Fig.1.Location of the nine selected periodic urban markets (PUMs) in Ghana.

4.Results and discussion

4.1.Social interactions developed in period urban markets (PUMs) and their benefits

The classification results analyzed by the NVivo software showed that the quotations of interviews can be synergized into 20 themes, of which 13 themes are for benefits of traders and 7 themes are for social interaction types(Table 2).As shown in Table 2, the seven types of social interactions that occur in PUMs in Ghana include (i) producerwholesaler relationship, (ii) producer-consumer relationship, (iii) wholesaler-retailer relationship, (iv) retailerconsumer relationship, (v) trader-driver relationship, (vi) trader-institution relationship, and (vii) trader-international buyers’ relationship.As most commodities are farm products in PUMs, the farmers were regarded as producers in this study.

4.1.1.Producer-wholesaler relationship

The producer-wholesaler relationship is developed through the exchange of goods and services between producers and wholesalers.On the one hand, producers visit PUMs to sell products directly to wholesalers, and the travel to PUMs also gives them the chance to interact with many other people.On the other hand, wholesalers visit the surrounding communities in PUMs to purchase from producers.

One-third of the wholesalers interviewed by this study agreed that on market days, wholesalers visit communities far from PUMs with minibuses to purchase farm products from producers and they do this because producers in far areas have difficulties to commute to PUMs due to their lack of access to vehicles.Similarly, two-thirds of producers said that during market days, they often see traders coming to their villages to purchase foodstuffs from villagers and carry the foodstuffs to various periodic markets to sell.

Producer-wholesaler relationship in PUMs provides several mutual benefits.Wholesalers offer financial assistance to producers, encouraging farmers to plant certain types of crops, such as plantain, cassava, or tomato.Wholesalers usually are given the first option to purchase farm products from producers.Five interviewed producers stated that they receive money from their regular cooperated wholesalers once a year and they have an agreement with the wholesalers that they must sell their farm products priority to the wholesalers.Three interviewed wholesalers also confirmed that they sometimes provide financial support to producers to assist them in growing certain crops, thereby enhancing their relationships with producers.

Table 2List of benefits and types of social interactions occurring in PUMs.

Another benefit for wholesalers from the social interaction with producers is that wholesalers have the privilege to purchase farm products from producers at a relatively reduced price because of the financial assistance they provide to producers.Wholesalers also purchase farm products from producers on credit and pay after selling.Three producers who received financial support from wholesalers confirmed that they sometimes reduce the prices of commodities to wholesalers to show appreciation.Three wholesalers who provided financial support to producers said that at every harvest time, they receive the privilege from producers to purchase farm products preferentially, and their relationship with some producers enables them to receive discounts on the prices of farm products.

Further, producer-wholesaler interactions provide a ready market for producers.Producers sell large volumes of farm products in PUMs when they engage with wholesalers.Of the 27 producers interviewed, 18 of them stated that they meet and sell farm products to wholesalers in PUMs, and they can sell quickly and return early to their villages because wholesalers are willing to purchase from them.

In addition, wholesalers’ interactions with producers in PUMs give them options to choose among different commodities and purchase fresh products directly from producers.Of the 47 wholesalers interviewed, 39 of them agreed with the statement that producers from rural areas sell fresh and natural food in PUMs, making wholesalers getting high-quality products directly.Likewise, 21 of the producers agreed with the statement that wholesalers are often the first customers to purchase from them to get the fresh products during market days.

4.1.2.Producer-consumer relationship

Producer-consumer relationship is developed through the exchange of goods and services between producers and direct consumers.Two conditions stimulate producers’ direct interactions with consumers: first, there are still some surplus farm products after selling to wholesalers; second, there have not enough commodities to sell in PUMs.Producers usually sell surplus commodities to consumers directly after trading with wholesalers.Of the 27 producers interviewed, 17 agreed with the statement that producers who sell directly to consumers during PUMs produce very small quantities of farm products, and these producers sell in PUMs purposely to get money to purchase other food products.

Producers learn different prices of commodities when they sell directly to consumers and wholesalers.All the interviewed producers agreed that selling directly to consumers and wholesalers in PUMs gives them the opportunity to compare the prices of commodities offered to consumers and wholesalers.

4.1.3.Wholesaler-retailer relationship

Wholesalers have good relationships with retailers.Through the interview, we found that wholesalers arrange meetings with retailers before the days of PUMs.Most wholesalers have contacted details of retailers, and prior to the days of PUMs, they usually have already agreed on the quantity of trade commodities with retailers.Similarly,retailers contact wholesalers before market days to inquire about the quantity of foodstuffs, so they can pre-order the volume of foodstuffs before market days.

Through this relationship, wholesalers get demand for foodstuffs from retailers.Retailers could purchase commodities from wholesalers on credit, and sometimes, they receive relatively reduced prices from wholesalers.The wholesalers confirmed that they usually agree on the prices that are suitable for retailers to speed up sales.Retailers could choose among different commodities because they interact with many wholesalers during the days of PUMs.As wholesalers interact with a large pool of retailers in PUMs, they can increase the sales of products.

4.1.4.Retailer-consumer relationship

We discovered that the large population of traders in PUMs are retailers.Retailers mostly sell to direct consumers,and through this, they establish good relationships with consumers.And through this relationship, the direct consumers also develop trust with retailers.

Retailers stated that customers with long-term transactions usually pay for commodities before market days, and the customers come to PUMs to collect their foodstuffs they have already paid for during market days.The interviewed retailers also stated that they usually prepare high-quality commodities for these long-term customers.

The trust relationships between retailers and consumers provide a ready market for retailers as retailers receive a steady demand for foodstuffs from consumers in PUMs.To maintain this trust relationship, retailers sometimes reduce the prices of commodities to consumers.The interviews showed that customers appreciate the relationship with retailers and give money to retailers to show their appreciation.Of the 61 retailers interviewed, 31 of them agreed with the statement that customers prefer to purchase foodstuffs from traders with whom they have established relationships, due to the willingness to get high-quality products.Retailers benefit from their relationships with consumers by receiving gifts such as money or clothes.

4.1.5.Trader-driver relationship

We found that producers, wholesalers, and retailers transport commodities to PUMs through negotiations with commercial drivers.Producers, wholesalers, and retailers mentioned that they collaborate and make transportation arrangements with commercial drivers prior to the days of PUMs.Through constant arrangements, they develop strong relationships with commercial drivers.The transportation arrangements with commercial drivers help producers, wholesalers, and retailers to manage time and arrive early in PUMs, as well as enjoy a reduction in transport costs.From interviews, we knew that most traders have a long-term cooperative commercial driver to transport their commodities to PUMs on time and usually enjoy discounts on transport fees.Not only do such arrangements enable traders to maximize the use of their time but also enhance their access to transport.Rural villagers face difficulties in getting vehicles to travel to town because of bad road conditions, but during the days of PUMs, commercial drivers are willing to visit villages to pick up farmers to go to and back from the markets.

4.1.6.Trader-institution relationship

We observed that the officers from the municipal assemblies such as the security service department, radio stations,traditional medicine societies, and financial institutions visit PUMs.Traders communicate and develop friendships with these officers from government institutions during the days of PUMs.

Traders can receive protection from security officers because the security service department guarantees the markets to operate smoothly with no crime or abuse.To show gratitude and maintain good relationships, traders reduce the prices of commodities to security officers.Traders receive financial information from financial institutions that guides them to make financial decisions such as opening bank accounts and depositing money into accounts during PUMs.Local council officers educate traders on personal hygiene, rebranding, weather updates, and value addition.Further, traders can receive healthcare information in PUMs, which stimulates their awareness of selection and use of medication for ailment treatment.An interviewee who had benefited from a traditional medicine practitioner said that he suffered seriously from a disease for many years, until one day he met a traditional medicine practitioner who visited PUMs to educate traders about the cause, symptoms, and cure of diseases, and he was cured from the sickness three months later after purchasing medicine from the practitioner.

Traders in PUMs not just contact government institutions, but also build relationships with the members of market associations or groups.Market associations in PUMs in Ghana are usually made up of sellers who sell the same category of commodities in markets, for example, a group of traders who sell beans are referred to as Bean Market Association.Members of market association can receive financial assistance from a welfare scheme offered by the market association to support their families’ funerals, childbirth, wedding ceremonies, etc.The leader of the market association informs members about the price changes of commodities.Traders also meet their members in market association to discuss the prices of commodities to be offered to buyers and comply with the standards set by the association.Members of market association are committed to helping one another in times of trouble or need.One of the producers told us that she received financial help from the members of market association after losing her family member.Moreover, unlike other traders who have been given temporal spaces to sell, members of market associations are privileged to have permanent and vantage space in PUMs.

4.1.7.Trader-international buyer relationship

PUMs located in the Brong-Ahafo, Upper East, Upper West, and Northern regions of Ghana are closer to West African countries such as Togo, Cote D’lvoire, and Burkina Faso.Traders’ participation in these market areas enables them to meet international buyers.Traders’ interactions with international buyers help them to establish friendships with foreigners and build new relations.Trading with international buyers in PUMs is a motivation for traders to learn foreign cultures and languages, and trade in foreign currency.

4.2.Social interactions contribute to sustainable livelihoods

4.2.1.Social interactions and human asset

Social interactions in PUMs create dual roles for producers.Producers interact directly with consumers and wholesalers.The non-periodic markets, such as the daily markets, especially in urban areas, involve primarily wholesalers and retailers, and it is not common to find producers or farmers in these markets (Sabet and Azharianfar,2017; Kini et al., 2020).The dual roles in PUMs equip producers with the skills to negotiate the prices of commodities as they compare prices offered to different consumers and wholesalers.These negotiation skills can help producers to obtain a higher price (Ronsijn, 2014; Houssou et al., 2018).

Irrespective of the socioeconomic background of traders, social interactions developed in PUMs increase their access to financial, healthcare, and agricultural information.Access to financial information in PUMs can also enable traders to discover the benefits of investing in farm or trading activities.Agricultural information can help traders to know changes in the prices of commodities to guide their bargaining ability in dealing with consumers.Healthcare information in PUMs is crucial for traders since traders from remote communities in Ghana and elsewhere in Sub-Saharan Africa lack access to healthcare and environmental information due to poor conditions of road (Acheampong et al., 2018; Zadawa and Omran, 2020).In addition, most remote villages in Ghana lack access to electricity,preventing farmers from accessing healthcare information through media (GSS, 2022).

Based on the results, we concluded that social interactions occurring in PUMs support the human assets of traders who participate in those markets.Therefore, we suggested that government institutions should intensify information sharing in PUMs to strengthen social interactions.

4.2.2.Social interactions and social asset

Both market associations and formal institutions increase social interactions.Social interactions developed through associations during the days of PUMs provide a source of reassurance for traders and encourage selling in groups.Selling in groups in PUMs creates trust, as traders within groups meet to discuss the prices of commodities to be offered to buyers, maintaining stable prices within a group.Price determination through market associations helps traders to get a good deal for farm products as they feel more secure than negotiating only by themselves (Yankson et al., 2016; Addai, 2021).Therefore, social interactions in PUMs support traders’ social assets.We suggested that government institutions should collaborate with market associations to strengthen ties among traders, and sequentially regulate the prices of commodities in PUMs.

4.2.3.Social interactions and physical asset

Social interactions in PUMs generate cooperation.The collective transport of commodities to PUMs through interactions between traders and drivers is immensely beneficial regarding traders’ access to transport and affordable transport costs.This cooperative strategy is a form of security for producers because the difficulty of a farmer not getting a vehicle to travel back to village could be minimized.Many studies have found that access to transport increases market participation among traders in developing countries (Dokmeci et al., 2006; Eff and Jensen, 2014;Yankson et al., 2016; Sabet and Azharianfar, 2017; Afukaar et al., 2019).It is also noted that increased participation in markets increases the agricultural productivity of farmers or producers as they get significant demand for their commodities during the days of PUMs (Housson et al., 2018; Karg et al., 2019; Piabuo et al., 2020).

We also found that social interactions in PUMs provide flexibility to traders.Traders, especially those who join market associations in PUMs, are given permanent space to sell.Similarly, Addai et al.(2023) found that PUMs exhibit more flexibility than non-periodic markets.The non-periodic markets in urban areas compel traders to rent stalls as a requirement for selling, but renting urban stores or stalls is expensive for poor traders in Ghana (Yankson et al., 2016).However, there is less restriction in PUMs, giving traders great opportunity to sell.Masaru and Badenoch(2013) described the flexibility of PUMs as exhibiting a high level of freedom.With the flexibility, traders can attend multiple PUMs and establish more relationships.We concluded that social interactions in PUMs support the physical assets of traders.

4.2.4.Social interactions and financial asset

Social interactions in PUMs also provide financial assistance to traders.In most African countries where farmers face limited access to formal credit, financial support such as pre-financing assists them to become financially stable(Gautam and Andersen, 2016; Tacoli, 2016; Maertens and Velde, 2017).The proximity of PUMs to other West African countries provides an opportunity for local traders to connect with international buyers.This interaction enables traders not only to expand their customer base but also to earn higher income by trading in foreign currency.Farmers or producers may receive financial support from fellow traders in PUMs when encountering crop failure or emergencies (Yankson et al., 2016).

Traders’ ability to open an account with financial institutions can help them to improve their financial assets, as they could save money and obtain loans.Further, the credit purchases that traders receive not only help them to operate their business without huge start-up capital, but also help to save the interests they pay for obtaining loans from financial institutions (Ronsijn, 2014; Yankson et al., 2016; Acheampong, 2018; Houssou et al., 2018).Social interactions in PUMs generate multiple sources for traders to receive financial support, which is important in sustaining their financial capability and investing in their business.We concluded that social interactions in PUMs support the financial assets of traders.

4.2.5.Social interactions and natural asset

Traders also purchase products for their lives and businesses when they sell commodities in PUMs, in other words,PUMs increase traders’ access to other commodities.The sale and purchasing of foodstuffs in PUMs contribute to the availability of food for traders.The steady demand for agricultural commodities through social interactions in PUMs can ensure the continuity in farming and the supply of farm products to the markets (Ntakyo and van den Berg, 2019).Social interactions in PUMs, therefore, support the natural assets of traders.

5.Conclusions

PUMs generate social interactions that support the livelihood assets of traders.Social interactions in PUMs have the following benefits: facilitating human assets by increasing traders’ access to obtain information and assisting them to acquire negotiation skills; increasing social assets by developing trust among traders; supporting physical assets by increasing traders’ access to transport and their participation in markets; enhancing financial assets by assisting traders to operate savings accounts, benefit from credit purchasing, and earn income; and improving natural assets by creating demand for commodities.

Traders, particularly poor farmers, can convert their commodities into cash for selling and enable them to purchase other products in PUMs, thereby increasing their purchasing ability.Therefore, PUMs can be a critical survival strategy to reduce seasonal unemployment and poverty in rural and urban areas.

The potential of social interactions in PUMs can support traders in reducing economic hardship or financial stress.Traders can improve their well-being because they have the financial ability to attain some necessities through their access to social relationships in PUMs.Social interactions in PUMs help traders to be part of global trading, as the markets provide opportunities to interact and trade with international buyers.In the absence of social interactions provided by PUMs, smallholder farmers, particularly in developing countries, may face difficulties in trading,therefore affecting livelihoods.The development of policies to improve PUMs could strengthen social interactions,enabling the achievement of sustainable livelihoods in developing countries.

This research adopted a qualitative design in data collection and analysis.Although qualitative data have provided an in-depth analysis on how PUMs generate social interactions and their implications for sustainable livelihood,combining qualitative data with quantitative data to predict the effects of social interactions on sustainable livelihoods should be considered in the future research.

Authorship contribution statement

Godfred ADDAI: conceptualization, methodology, data curation, formal analysis, writing - original draft, writing -review & editing, and funding acquisition; Owusu AMPONSAH: formal analysis, writing - original draft, and writing- review & editing; and Romanus Dogkubong DINYE: writing - original draft and writing - review & editing.

Ethics statement

Ethics approval was obtained from the Research Ethics Review Committee of the University of Adelaide.In addition, the participants provided their informed consent to participate in this study.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This paper shows part of research findings of Godfred ADDAI’s doctoral dissertation completed in the University of Adelaide, Australia.We appreciate Dr.Jungho SUH and Dr.Douglas BARDSLEY from the University of Adelaide for their guidance on Godfred ADDAI’s PhD dissertation.Special thanks to all the stakeholders who participated in this study.