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中國小說與史傳文學之間的關系

2017-01-10 00:46趙寬熙
關鍵詞:獨創性復古

摘要:對歷史和敘事關系的研究也是在努力追尋中國小說起源。在文中,我將對中國小說敘事傳統形成的原因和意義進行解釋。無論是中國還是歐洲,歷史和小說都有特定的形式特征因而很容易辨別,但在早期,小說還不能從歷史中區別出來,隨著時間的推移,小說逐漸從歷史中分離出來。然而,這一趨勢喚起了復古和擬古的中國文學傳統,復古也就是將古復活于今日,這一傳統會刺激后來者努力超越前人。因此,如果不將歷史和敘事區別開來,就無法理清楚它們兩者之間的關系。

關鍵詞:史傳性;獨創性; 復古;正典;建設的想象力

中圖分類號:I207.4

文獻標識碼:A DOI:10.3963/j.issn.16716477.2016.06.0001

一、史傳與虛構

歷史與小說的關系是古今眾多從事中國小說研究的學者們所關注的一個重要課題。近代以前,中國人對小說抱著雙重態度,即志怪、傳奇乃至話本、白話小說之類的敘事作品,并沒有受到重視,反而一直被輕視甚至被忽略;另一方面,這類作品所具有的教化功能卻受到了過分的夸張。這又例證了一個事實:古代中國人并沒有單純地將這些敘事作品視為記錄虛構的事件??梢哉f,這一切源自于中國人傳統上將所有小說視為歷史的一部分。

這樣看來,圍繞著歷史與小說關系所進行的討論,已超越了單純的體裁區分問題,其中蘊含著更加廣泛的意義。

“對探究中國敘事的本質問題必須從史傳文的重要性與在某個意義上又為文化的總合體的歷史主義理解下出發。實際上,如何定義中國敘事的范疇這一問題,歸根結底可以總結為中國傳統文化的兩大重要形態——史傳和虛構是否存在內在的平衡感?!雹?/p>

在中國小說史上,探究歷史與小說的關系,不僅意味著從體裁方面比較兩者之間的異同,更意味著這是在探尋中國敘事的本質問題。為此,現代眾多學者關注“歷史與小說的關系”,可以說就是揭示“中國小說的起源”的一個重要環節。之所以這樣說,是因為“小說出于歷史”的主張,正是為闡明“中國小說的起源”所作的努力之一②。

二、小說是不是“正史之補”?

有趣的是,中國學者們在議論“中國小說的起源”時,往往有為其區分“稗官說”與“史傳說”的傾向。這里所謂的“稗官說”,是主張小說的由來是源自于統治者為了解民情而派遣名為稗官的官吏去采集民間“街談巷語,道聽途說者之所造”而來的;“史傳說”則認為小說是從史傳文學發展而來的。由此可集約出這樣一個結論,即“稗官說”是以創作的主體為基準,“史傳說”則是側重于與其他文學體裁的聯系關系。

另外,從“稗官”來探索小說的起源,是另具含義的,這可以從后代小說史家對小說功能的重視得以論證。絕大多數的小說史家主張小說是“正史之補”,“小說出自稗官”一說則是他們的有力依據。這一過程中成為問題的是有關“稗官”的職責和地位。據文獻所載,中國古代各個領域,都有大小不同的官吏各司其職,稗官是其中地位甚微的一個官職,其地位遠不如正統史官[1]5-6。

在上述內容的基礎上,張振君概括了古代中國“小說”所包涵的幾種含義:[1]6-7

其一,就小說的作者而言,其乃是地位低下的稗官,而非高貴的史官(如太史);

其二,就小說的內容而言,其主要記“里巷世故,芻蕘狂夫之議”,而不是像正史那樣記君國大事;

其三,就小說的形式而言,其“含殘叢小語,近取譬喻,以作短書”,而不是像正史那樣可洋洋灑灑,連篇累牘;

其四,就小說的功用而言,其主要供封建統治者觀民風、知民情,而不是像正史那樣“鑒君臣之善惡,載政事之得失,觀人才之吉兇,知邦家之休戚”;

其五,就小說的價值而言,其淺薄虛妄,而不是像正史那樣征實可靠。

張振君就此還進一步闡述了“史傳性”才是中國小說所具有的民族特征③。

綜上所述,我們可以發現不少學者認為小說出于稗官、小說是“正史之補”。根據記載,該主張最早見于漢代班固的《漢書·藝文志》:“小說家者流,蓋出于稗官,街談巷語,道聽涂說者之所造也?!卑喙淘诖怂傅男≌f家并非如今的小說家,他所列舉的小說15家1380篇作品亦不同于如今的小說,故無需追加解釋。不過重要的是,自班固以來后世毫無質疑地接受了小說的起源源于歷史這一說法。

自班固以后,最能體現此說的乃是魏晉南北朝時期的一些志怪作家。首先葛洪指出:

“然神仙幽隱,與世異流,世之所聞者,猶千不得一者也?!杞駨统胖烧?,見于《仙經服食方》及百家之書,先師所說,耆儒所論,以為十卷,以傳知真識遠之士?!盵2] 在此葛洪闡明了為補遺秦代阮倉和漢代劉向記錄的缺陷而作。同時期的代表志怪作品集有《搜神記》,該書作者干寶的主張亦無異于葛洪,其言曰:“雖考先志于載籍,收遺逸于當時,蓋非一耳一目之所親聞賭也,亦安敢謂無實者哉!……然而國家不廢注記之官,學士不絕誦覽之業,豈不以其所失者小,所存者大乎!…… 及其著述,亦足以明神道之不誣也。群言百家不可勝覽,耳目所受不可勝哉?!盵3]

干寶不僅強調了歷史記錄的重要性與困擾,進一步對事實(reality)作了廣泛的規定,那就是所謂著名的“神道之不誣也”。對于干寶的主張,我們需要破讀的不是其話語的真偽,而是話語中所隱含的那個時代的人們對現實的認識④。即使以現代的觀點,志怪的內容無非有超越現實之感,然而當時人們對其所持的態度是絕對當真的,以至于認為是某種歷史。從這一意義上來說,也許古代中國人認為志怪就是歷史記錄的一股支流⑤。

《漢武洞冥記》作者郭憲亦曾在其書的序中指出過:“欲保存古代記錄是作為一個歷史家的沖動”⑥。

憲家世述道書,推求先圣往賢之所撰集,不可窮盡,千室不能藏,萬乘不能載,猶有漏逸?;蜓愿≌Q,非政聲所同,經文史官記事,故略而不取。蓋偽國殊方,并不在錄。愚謂古曩余事,不可得而棄,況漢武帝明俊特異之主,東方朔因滑稽浮誕以匡諫,洞心于道教,使冥跡之奧,昭然顯著,今藉舊史之所不載者,聊以聞見,撰《洞冥記》四卷,成一家之書,庶明博君子,該而異焉。武帝以欲窮神仙之事。故絕域遐方,貢其珍異奇物及道術之人,故于漢世,盛于君主也,故編次之云爾。東漢郭憲序。

唐代歷史家劉知幾又言:“國史之任,記事記言,視聽不該,必有遺逸,于是好奇之士,補其所亡?!盵4]

此后到了明代,不僅馮夢龍指出“史統散而小說興”(馮夢龍,《古今小說序》),之后亦有諸多學者談及到歷史與小說的關系:“傳記之作……而通之于小說?!保R端臨,《文獻通考》)“正史之流而為雜史也,雜史之流為類書、為小說、為家傳也?!保愌浴斗f水遺編·說史中》)“稗官野史實記正史之未備?!保ㄐ艽竽?,《新刊大宋演義中興英烈傳序》)“小說,正史之余也?!保ㄐㄖ魅?,《今古奇觀序》)“用佐正史之未備,統曰歷朝小說?!保▌⑼^,《在園雜志序》)

近代以后,談及“歷史與小說”關系的作者自魯迅以來不計其數。絕大多數的中國小說史或小說史之類的著作也是一直把小說跟中國“史傳”傳統聯系起來進行討論的。

關于“小說與歷史”的相關性認識,不僅僅局限于中國。

“根據Lionel Gossman:很長時間歷史與文學的關系并沒有造成什么問題,因歷史是文學的一部分。18世紀末,文學一詞的意義或文學制度本身開始發生變化的時候,歷史與文化才被區分開?!雹叨疫@些初期的西方小說家對自己的作品被歸類為小說一直持否定態度。

“就像近代一些學者所表示,17—18世紀大部分作者默示或者明示地將隱瞞了他們寫小說或羅曼史Romance的事實。將他們所寫的作品命名為‘一史,‘一生活,‘一回憶錄等。這將為了區分輕浮、變異、荒唐,時而隱含不道德的一些已有作家的作品。常會發現寫在序文上的‘這既不是小說,也不是羅曼史、故事的句段”⑧。

這和一些志怪與傳奇作家們將他們的作品命名為 “一經”、“一傳”或“一記”的事實的緣由相同⑨。由此可見,無論是西方還是中國,對于虛構的看法都一致,都在有意識地否定與回避這一事實,并且傾向于歷史的觀念上相同⑩。

可見將敘事與歷史等同看待的原因是因為兩者之間所具有的形式上的特征B11。因此,像劉歆、班固等初期的目錄學者也就將志怪列入了雜傳類之中。

傳統中國一直到相當晩期的大部分文學理論家對敘事采取“歷史中心”的研究方法。對敘事的注解與理論以歷史敘事作為其原型的基礎。一些虛構敘事往往以歷史敘事的尺度理論化來評價。歷史著作成為解釋敘事作品的主要依據(方式)。敘事既是歷史,小說既是非正式且不完整的歷史B12。

三、是事實的記述,還是意義的解釋?

中國古代歷史記述同時存在兩個相對的立場:其一是歷史記述的接近方式;其二是解釋學的接近方式。這也可以理解為史學與經學的兩個分支,《春秋》正是說明這兩者的一個好例子。也就是說《春秋》具有經典與史書的雙重性格,“《春秋》既是六經之一,屬于經學領域,同時也是作為歷史文本,屬于史學領域?!盉13上述兩點,即一個是站在中立的立場對客觀事實的記述,另一個是對此事實的內在含義進行解釋的過程。

同時,這種差異在小說里同樣可以發現志怪與傳奇的區別:

這個(志怪)流傳到唐代發展為傳奇。這(傳奇)與志怪不同,志怪自始至終就是記錄怪異之事,重視記錄性和事實性;傳奇則為傳,有解釋之義,換言之,就是發揮作家的想象力,即發展為以作家想象力為主的創作。傳奇無需根據事實,更重視作家的想象力與語言表達能力,這與我們所認為的“現代小說”的定義相接近,而且已具備了現代小說的一些要素。另外,志怪并不重視作者,但傳奇卻很重視作者[5]。

傳奇的“傳”并不單純意味著事實的傳達,其在積極意義上是作家參與并加以解釋的行為,由此唐代被認為是中國小說史上的一個重要轉折點。歷史記述上的這種差異,在后人理解真實(reality)的方式上也呈現出不同的立場,即是“歷史的意義并不是通過解釋這一扭曲過程所發現的”,“事實是在歷史文本中自身顯現”B14的立場,和“從歷史的角度解釋的‘存在is,sein與‘當為ought to be,sollen,相互交織而不可分離”,“道德的、意識形態的、政治的基準是建立在對于歷史里實際的、事實的所有探求的基礎上”B15的兩相對立的立場。

前者代表人物為唐代著名史學家劉知幾。他主張歷史記述的中心原則為“實錄”,又認為“像《左傳》一樣寫得完美無缺的歷史敘事,因記錄完整,無須解釋”B16。這很容易使人聯想到19世紀后期法國自然主義者陳述的劉知幾的這些主張,基于歷史敘事中的語言和意義不存在分歧,它們之間是一致的觀念。他的這種假設是根據人與人之間的關系基于事物與事件的本質,“只要客觀地敘述過去的故事,就會使讀者在他們所看到的故事中得到道德上的教訓?!彪S即“客觀的歷史談論將一切事實放在透明自然的視角中,就不需解釋了?!本驮诖它c上由此引起了動人的辯證的反轉,這就是劉知幾的那種“起初所抱有的‘否定的懷疑性解釋學顯然變為‘肯定的逼真性詩學”。也就是說“寫歷史并不是構成‘事實的某物而是朝著羅蘭·巴特所說的創造‘引起現實感的效果(Reality Effect)”的方向改變了B17。

劉知幾的逼真性可讓我們回顧一下歷史撰寫的基本背景為“歷史材料根據人與現實的特定觀點,錯綜復雜而又意識形態化的組織體系”。換言之,由于逼真性,而得以“無法隱蔽已被公認的結構與所設定的主題”。如今歷史編撰已不是“外表上起初所看到的自然談論,反倒是意識形態,即‘在特定社會里的歷史存在和角色所賦予的再現體系”B18在此正當性是取得逼真性存在的原理,同時又是上面所談到的解釋學接近方式的最終實體。在此要提示一下,以上談及的歷史記述的接近方式,與解釋學的接近方式——“文本text里的‘語言與‘意義、‘文字與‘真義之間具有不一致性”的看法——正好找到了切點B19。

其實,在中國歷史的探究上,“關注客觀性與經驗主義的背后,隱含著深厚的‘政治的無意識的基礎”,由此“讀、寫歷史的中國人有一個基本上的前提”就是“‘正統性,即社會地位的正統性、對繼承王室與王朝的正統性的中心觀念”B20。換言之,“中國的歷史談論一直是高級的政治化行為”,從而必須是“客觀性的同時,又是規范性”?!皻v史可以說是正當化、自我合理化的后設敘事(Meta-Narrative)?!盉21以客觀事實為依據的逼真性的追究與正當性促成了絕妙的組合,引致歷史記述的接近方式與解釋學的接近方式的和諧,由此歷代王朝的史官與文人就無需在處理兩者的關系之間產生沖突了。

我們發現,與歷史的界限含糊不清且具模糊地位的小說亦有此傾向。就中國小說而言,區分歷史與小說的基準并不在于“單純的事實與編造出的故事,實際性與蓋然性,文字字義的真實與想象中的真實”的兩分法,而在于“正典與非正典,正式被公認的故事與非正式的談論,正統與非正統”之間B22。因此,無論在中國和西方,為理解古代敘事必須接受幾乎所有的記錄都與歷史記述有著密切相關的事實。換言之,中國小說史是從歷史中分出的虛構要素走向獨立的過程B23。

虛構事實的記錄自歷史分離出來的過程,體現在傳統目錄學家談論樣式的分類中。如上所述,較早期的目錄學家劉歆、班固等人將小說列入雜傳類以來,以目錄學的立場對小說的分類,早期的時候并沒有與歷史劃分界限。但到了后期,小說遂與歷史區分了。這種認識直接影響了后世的目錄學者,因此有著將小說看作史書的主導傾向。古代中國傳統目錄分類法——四部分類法雖已被廣泛接受,但小說一直沒有被納入文學領域里,最初使用四部分類法的魏征的《隋書·經籍志》則為代表之例。根據安正燻所指,《隋書·經籍志》與被認為是沿襲了《隋書·經籍志》的《舊唐書·經籍志》里,屬于志怪的作品大致分類為史部雜傳類、雜事類里;“對歷史人物的逸話、評論和以詼諧而富有諷刺的談論所形成的”志人作品被分到子部小說家中[6]54-58。而且魏征的四部分類法造成了“哲學和歷史、(在形式上)談論和敘事間明顯的界限”,由于小說“其本身具有繁雜瑣碎的故事、細小的事情、雞鳴狗盜的言說之義”。因此跟敘事相比,其順其自然就屬于談論的領域了B24。

然而到了宋代這種局勢就發生了巨大變化,小說終于擺脫了歷史的范疇。首先就史書的情況看,歐陽修參與編纂的《新唐書·經籍志》一書中,屬于史部雜傳類的大量志怪作品被列入小說家[6]58-61;小說脫離歷史范疇的另一個標志可舉同一時期編纂的各種類書。類書意義的依據可從“當時具有補充漸次精細而純正的歷史書的作用”,“承擔保存排在正統歷史書之外的一些古代記錄的責任”上尋找B25。

魯曉鵬對此舉出《文選》和《文苑英華》中“傳”的一例相反意見的情況:“與《文選》相比,《文苑英華》的明顯差異是以‘傳記或‘傳為名的小說體裁的出現?!段倪x》里確實包含‘碑、‘墓志、‘行狀等等的敘事與準傳奇的體裁??伞畟髋c其說是文學體裁,不如說是更接近歷史體裁,因而被排除選集之外?!P注于多樣傳奇作品的定義與分類的卻是一些史學家和目錄學家?!端鍟そ浖尽吩凇畾v史部門列舉了217個《雜傳》題目,并將這些劃分為歷史作品的13類型之一。在《史通》中,劉知幾通過〈雜述〉這一章節敘述了不能包含在正統、正式的歷史全集中的準歷史作品。他認為‘別傳是非正式歷史的十個類型中的一個?!?/p>

《文苑英華》中,載有很多如“行狀”、“志”、“碑”、“銘”的古傳奇與準傳奇體裁。其與過去選集不同的最大特點是其中混雜了唐代作家所作的30個以上的虛構“傳奇”。虛構傳奇可與高雅的正統文學體裁并肩而立了。對微不足道的虛構體裁的這種認識,以及對虛構體裁賦予了正式文學正典的資格,此兩點可為中國小說研究的一大變遷。宋代之前,傳奇與小說以歷史與準歷史的形態分類,并以歷史記述的觀點論述?!盉26

在此之前,被史家們定為“雜傳”的傳奇類敘事作品,在《文選》里被看成歷史而沒有收錄,但在《文苑英華》里“傳”卻被歸為文學領域。這說明具有濃厚的文學性的“傳”,在《文選》中被看作文學分類之外的歷史領域,而到了《文苑英華》卻發生了變化。這樣看來,宋代小說脫離歷史領域的標志可以總結為以下三點:其一,在《文苑英華》一書中,將虛構傳奇與其他文學體裁放在一起,作為文學體裁相提并論;其二,出現具有特殊地位的小說全集《太平廣記》的編纂B27;其三,列舉在《新唐書》里的小說部門的書的題目性質接近于現代小說的概念B28。

綜上所述,自“史部雜史類”轉移到“子部小說家”的過程,可以說是排除虛構成分的結果。也可以解釋為對“事實性”認識的變化。主張中國小說“史傳說”的代表學者之一石昌渝認為:從現代觀念來看,“說實話”的是歷史學家,“說假話”的是小說家[7]3。與此同時,他主張在中國人的觀念中,將小說列入子部也好史部也好,這并不重要,排斥虛構與不允許作者的想象摻進敘述過程里,才是中國人的傳統思維[7]2。

四、回歸歷史的小說談論

排斥虛構、不允許作家的想象摻進敘述過程的這一主張,不禁讓人想起孔子所主張的“述而不作”與遵循其說的司馬遷的一句名言:“余所謂述故事,整齊其世傳,非所謂作也,而君比之于春秋謬矣?!盵8]

司馬遷認為史記不是“作”之產品,故聲明不可與所謂“作”領域的《春秋》進行比較。他的這一表明,為對創作的傳統理解提供了引人注目的反轉契機。黃衛總認為,司馬遷本著孔子述而不作的原則,主張其《史記》不是革新,同時又不可與為其本身看作革新者的孔子相提并論的這種看法,這一瞬間,卻把中國歷史上最具革新的人物之一的孔子或司馬遷本身的獨創性否認了B28。黃衛總的指責,其意義甚為深遠。他指出了這樣的事實:在傳統觀念上,中國人為了追隨孔子“述而不作”的精神,而否認了自身著作的獨創性,這種觀點反倒形成了主張獨創性的特殊修辭手段?!巴ㄟ^否認得以主張(claiming by means of disclaiming)”,才呈現出具有極致反向的獨創性的本質。黃衛總的此論,使F. W. Mote在對有關藝術獨創性的中國傳統態度的下列一段言論中得到了很大啟示:“美學上、技術上的成就度越高,富于創造力的個人就越能控制過去,反之則被控制于過去。因為它們是完全統一的?!盉29

進而在此基礎上,黃衛總例示了中國文學史上在復古restoring antiquity or returning to antiquity與擬古imitation of the ancients的名分下所形成的諸多文學創作。首先以唐代李白為首的諸多詩人所創作的詩歌如果是在擬古之下取得的成果,那么唐代發起的古文運動同樣也是被反向命名的散文改革運動。因此,明代何景明對于把復古的名稱用于韓愈的古文運動感到別扭,以至于聲明“古文精神與其說是復興于韓愈的手上,毋寧說是敗在其手中”。當然,何景明的這一見解,不僅使不懂獨創性之“逆說”的諸多評論家陷入混亂,甚至于激怒了他們B30。究其緣由,無非在于他們不了解反面教材的應用原理而已。

值得注意的是,就連“獨創性”一詞也往往藉“復古”、“擬古”等范例加以表達的中國人的思維體系將傳統小說的研究對象局限于“原本研究”、“影響研究”、“派生研究”等范疇之內,也就不難理解了B31。從而“按時間先后,以較晩出現的小說敘事文學來探討史傳文學的‘源頭和‘原型,進行所謂逆流而上的研究”B32成了過去相當一段時期中國小說研究的主要趨勢B33。

可謂“對起源的懷古之情(nostalgia for origin) ”B34常會引發后人一種焦慮感,即“究竟讓我們能做到的還剩下什么”?這種過去的負面影響,可總結之前所說的對“獨創性”的渴望和與此同時伴隨突破傳統方式的一種嘗試。因此江西詩派對文體進行“脫胎換骨appropriating the embryo”或“點鐵成金catalytic transformation”的做法,亦即通過把前人的詩句和詩意等的互文inter-textuality手法來減輕“因先例而不安anxiety for precedence”的心理負擔。這“復古”不再是單純的擬古傾向,而是積極意義上的“用古using antiquity”[9]。

總的來說,“中國小說與史傳文學之間的關系”,在某個意義上,應該被看成是維持在一種文學的相互連貫或互文性上。故事記述者的驚人記憶力和描繪技巧,以及在過去威權下被從屬的小說談論的富有生產性、創作性的實例不停地還原到回歸歷史B35。

況且,古代中國小說理論家一方面重視小說“正史之補”的功能,另一方面主張小說不僅停留在單純地對事實的傳達。這是一個重要的態度轉換,意味著不再把小說單純視為文本text的累積,而看作是一個談論discourse的主體。例如,可以說古代統治者僅藉稗官以解民風與民情的做法,到后來竟發展成藉小說來教化百姓的境界。

從歷史走向虛構的這一事實,意味著人們的關心不再停留在事實(實際)與證實上了。早期由稗官采集的民間故事是統治者為考察“民情(習俗)”所用的工具,如今卻擴大其領域成了教化百姓的積極涵義。如果說由稗官采集故事的過程能起到一種“向心力”的作用,那么在一定意義上,積極地向百姓散布教化意圖的行為,可稱為是一種“離心力”。

科林伍德(Collingwood)將這種離心力稱為“構成上的想象力”(constructive imagination)B36是指事實與意義(意味)活躍結合的過程。正是“通過這種結合過程形成了談論的特定意義結構,而我們必須承認這就是歷史意識的產物”B37。進而Hayden White將科林伍德的“構成上的想象力”稱為“(在不能隨意啟動義上的)先驗的、(或組成可能思考的對象,并在為形式的一貫性概念所控制的義上)構造的”B38。

中國古代不能或不許將小說與歷史分開來談論。問題的核心是,小說和歷史均為屬于敘事這一大范疇的何物?對此進行劃分,而其基準終究是當代社會所要求的實際需求。如今,我們究竟是在記述歷史,還是在寫小說呢?

注釋:

①“Any theoretical inquiry into the nature of Chinese narrative must take its starting point in the acknowledgement of the immense importance of historiography and, in a certain sense, ‘historicism in the total aggregate of the culture. In fact, the question of how to define the narrative category in Chinese literature eventually boils own to whether or not there did exist within the traditional civilization a sense of the inherent commensur ability of its two major forms:historiography and fiction.”(See Plaks,Andrew H., Chinese Narrative Theory-Towards a Critical Theory of Chinese Narrative,Plaks, Andrew H. ed., Chinese Narrative-Critical and Theoretical Essays,Princeton University Press, 1977. p.311.)

②中國小說的起源眾說紛紜,有“稗官說”、“方士說”、“神話說”、“史傳說”、“莊子說”、“諸子寓言說”、“勞動的休息說”等。詳細內容可參考張稔穰的《中國古代小說藝術教程》一書(山東教育出版社,1991年版第4-5頁);更加詳細的論議可參考刊載在《中國小說論叢》第4輯(首爾:中國小說研究會,1995年3月)趙寬熙的《試論中國小說的起源、概念和定義》一文。

③張振軍所說的“史傳性”為:題材的史傳性;思想觀念的史傳性;小說藝術的史傳性。詳細內容請參考張振軍的《傳統小說與中國文化》一書(廣西師范大學出版社,1996年版第16-19頁)

④“我們必須早日從辨別所有古代記錄的真偽這一愚蠢的行動中脫離。如同東洋學界本世紀文獻學的金字塔之一的張心澂的《偽書通考》所代言,吾人還不能脫離這種真偽辨別文獻學的幼稚階段?!袣v史的陳述由于其樣式具有各自特有、固有的意義,所以不能做為真偽的對象?!?(參見金容沃的《何為女》一書,首爾:Tongnamu,1986年第134-135頁)。

⑤“按照一般的常理言,小說并非歷史??墒俏簳x南北朝小說,無論內容和形式,都受到先秦兩漢史傳的影響,實際是史傳的一股支流?!?(參見劉葉秋的《魏晉南北朝小說》一書,中華書局,1961年第21頁)

⑥“……the historians urge to preserve ancient records.”(See DeWoskin, Kenneth J.,“The Six Dynasties Chih-Kuai and the Birth of Fiction”, in Plaks, Andrew H. ed., Chinese Narrative, Princeton University Press, 1977. p.30)

⑦“According to Lionel Gossman, ‘For a long time the relationship of history to literature was not notably problematic. History was a branch of literature. It was not until the meaning of the word literature, or the institution of literature itself began to change, toward the end of the eighteenth century, that history came to appear as something distinct from literature.Lionel Gossman”,“History and Literature:Reproduction or Signification”,in The Writing of History:Literary Form and Historical Understanding, Eds.Robert H. Canary and Henry Kozicki, Madison:University of Wisconsin Press, 1978. P.23. 轉引自Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1994), op. cit., p.29.

⑧“As recent scholars have shown, most seventeenth-and eighteenth-century authors implicitly or explicitly denied that they were writing novels or romances.They entitled their works ‘histories, ‘lives, or ‘memoirs to dissociate themselves from the frivolous,fanciful, improbable, sometimes immoral aspects of the former. In one form or another, the phrase ‘this is not a novel/romance/story appeared frequently in prefaces.”(See Wallace Martin, op. cit., p.43)

⑨“只要大致檢討現存志怪文本,顯然就會發現與歷史著作類似。大部分的志怪集以‘志、‘記、‘傳作為題目。With even a cursory examination of the chih-kuai texts that we now have, their affinity with traditional historical writing is obvious. Most collections are entitled ‘records, ‘accounts, ‘biographies.”(See DeWoskin, Kenneth J., op. cit., p.26)

⑩不過,雖然歷史與小說之間有相同性,但對兩者之間的關系,中國與西歐認識上的差異是比較鮮明的。在中國,小說從歷史中被分離,而在西歐,歷史從文學中被分離。這可以說是因為“在西歐清楚強調‘模仿,作家講故事是從虛構中所產生的”,與此相反,“在中國講究‘傳達,強調作家講故事都是真實所產生的”。(參見金震坤的《中國小說研究序說》之《故事、小說、Novel》,首爾:藝文書院,2001年第39頁)

B11其中最具代表性的是在中國的小說作品中“以采取第三人稱全知視角為多”?!皻v史記述者大體上想要強調事實,由此,想要不把敘述主體放在前面,而完善地再建構敘述對象”,“這種趨勢必定對中國小說產生影響?!保▍⒁娊鹫鹄さ摹吨袊≌f研究序說》之《故事、小說、Novel》,首爾:藝文書院,2001年第39頁)

B12“Until quite late in the Chinese tradition, most literary theorists adopted a ‘historical approach to narrative. Notions and theories of narrative were essentially based on the model of historical narratives. More often than not, fictional narratives were theorized and judged in accordance with the standards of historical narratives. Historical interpretation remained the predominant mode of reading narrative works. Narrative was history, and fiction was unofficial, defective history. "”(See Lu,Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1994), op. cit., p. 3.)

B13“The annals itself has the double status of being at once a Classic and a history. As one of the Six Classics, the annals falls in the domain of ching-hsüeh, the ‘study of the Classic. But as a historical text, it also belongs to the realm of shih-hsüeh, ‘historical studies. Whereas the hermeneutic approach grew out of exegesis of the Classics, the historiographical approach emerged from the discipline of history. ” (See Lu,Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1994), op. cit., p.54.)

B14“The meaning of history is not to be recovered through the tortuous procedures of interpretation:it emerges freely and naturally from a well-structured historical narrative. ”(See Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1994), op. cit., p.55.)

B15“The ‘is and the ‘ought are intertwined and become inseparable in historical interpretation. Behind all intentions of objectivity and empiricism in Chinese historical inquiry exists a deep-seated ‘political unconscious. A moral, ideological, and political measure underlies all search for the actual and real in history. ”(See Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1994), op. cit., pp.90-91.)

B16“Liu thinks that in a well-written historical narrative, such as the Tso chuan, the meaning of the recorded events is self-evident and interpretation is superfluous.”(See Lu,Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1994), op. cit., p.75.)

B17“The curious point in Lius historiography is his belief in a natural,inevitable link between language and meaning,and between signifier and signified. His fundamental assumption is that human relations are grounded in the nature of things and events. Once the stories of the past are narrated ‘objectively , the reader can draw moral lessons from what he reads. Interpretation becomes superfluous once objective historical discourse locates everything within a transparent, natural perspective.At this point, his initial ‘narrative hermeneutics of suspicion apparently transforms into a positive poetics of vraisemblance. In the end objective narration and realistic description support the existing conventions of representing history. The writing of history does not constitute the ‘real but creates, in Barthess words, a ‘reality effect(Barthes,‘Historical Discourse, 154).”(See Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1994), op. cit., pp.76-77.)

B18“But what is backgrounded in historiography is an intricate and ideologically motivated system of organizing historical materials that conforms to specific views of humanbeings and reality.The effects of vraisemblance do no succeed in concealing the entrenched structure of legitimation and the establishment of subjects.Historiography is far from being the natural discourse it might seem at first:rather, it is nothing less than an ideology, ‘a system(with its own logic and rigor)of representations(images,myths,ideas or concepts……)endowed with a historical existence and role within a given society(Althusser, For Marx, 231)”(See Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1994), op. cit., p.6.)

B19“A basic premise of the Chun-chiu commentators is that a discrepancy between word and meaning,between the ‘letter and the ‘spirit, exists in the text.” (See Lu,Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1994), op. cit., pp.60-61.)

B20“Behind all intentions of objectivity and empiricism in Chinese historical inquiry exists a deep-seated ‘political unconscious.……one fundamental assumption of Chinese readers and writers of history is the central notion of ‘legitimacy: the legitimacy of social posit ions and the legitimacy of the succession of royal houses and dynasties.” (See Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1994), op. cit., pp.90-91.)

B21“Historical discourse has always been a highly politicized activity in China:it has had to be at once objective and normative.……History may be called the grand me tanarrative of legitimation and self-legitimation.”(See Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1994), op. cit., p.82.)

B22“The difference between history and fiction was no longer solely the dichotomy of fact and invention, actuality and probability, or literal truth and imaginative truth.The line separating them was,to alarge extent,between canonical and non-canonical texts, between officially sanctioned discourse and non-official discourse,between orthodoxy and heterodoxy. ” (See Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1994), op. cit., p.5.)

B23上述所引用的魯曉鵬一書,就如其書名,不難看出是以自歷史的事實性到小說虛構之變化這一范例paradigm為中心追遡中國小說史的發展趨勢?!爸袊糯鷼v史的著作與小說的要素尚未區分、共存之際,把某樣式或某時期指定為小說的誕生正是說明小說與歷史的分割。If ficton is said to have cohabitated with genuine historical writing from the beginning in China,when we designate a genre or a perion as the birth of fiction we are in face describing the divergence of fiction and history from each other.(See DeWoskin, Kenneth J., op. cit., p.27)

B24“In the ssu-pu system as Wei Cheng inherited it, there was an explicit line drawn between philosophy and history, discourse and narrative in formal terms, and the hsiao-shuo were naturally shelved with the philosophies.hsiao-shuo,be the term rendered ‘little talk,trivial explanation, ‘minor persuasion,or the like,clearly belonged to the discursiverather than the narrative in a division.”(See DeWoskin, Kenneth J., op. cit., p.46.)

B25“The emergence and development of the lei-shu seen from this perspective complements the increasing sophistication and purification of the historical writing of the period, their appearance coming in response to the need to preserve ancient records that were being abandoned by the traditional bearer.” (See DeWoskin, Kenneth J.,op. cit., p.48)

B26“A notable difference between the Wen-hsüan and the Wen-yüan ying-hua is the emergence hsiao-shuo genre of ‘biography,or chuan. To be sure,the Wen-hsüan contains such narrative and quasi-biographical genres as the ‘stone inscription(pei),the ‘commorative record (mu-Chi),and the ‘account of a career(hsing-chuang).But the chuan is exclude from the anthology for being a historical genre rather than a literary one.Chapter 12 of Liu Hsiehs theoretical treatise,the Wen-hsin tiao-lung,is devoted to the semibiographical genres of ‘elegy(lei) and ‘stone inscription(pei). Chaper 6, which deal with historical writings,briefly mentions the topic of the chuan. But neither the Wen-hsüan nor the Wen-hsin tiao-lung discusses the ‘biography(chuan) in its diverse forms. It was, rather, the historians and bibliographers who were interested in defining and classifying the varietyes of biographical writings.The ‘Chin-chi chih of the Sui-shu lists 217 titles of ‘miscellaneous biography(tsa-chuan) in the ‘History Sectionand teats them as one of the thirteen types ofhistorical writings.The ‘BibliographicTreatise of the Chiu Tang-shu basically follows the practiceof the Sui-shu on this matter.In the Shih-tung,Liu Chih-chi devoted a chapter,Miscellaneous Narritive(‘Tsa-shu), to the quasi-historical writings that cannot be included in the corpus of canonical and official histories.He considers,separate biography(pieh-chuan) one of the ten types of non-offical histories. In the Wen-yüan ying-hua,there is no lack of such old biographical and semi-biographical genres as hsing-chuang, chih(record), ei, and ming(commemorative record). A major change from previous anthologies is the incorporation of more than thirty fictional ‘biographies be Tang writers.Fictional biography is now listed alongside the elevated official literrary genres.This recognition of a humble fictional genre and its investiture by the official literay canon are not insignificant for the study of Chinese fiction.Before the Sung,biograph and hsiao-shuo had been classified as forms of historical and quasi-historical writings and discussed from the point of view of historiography.”(See Lu,Sheldon Hsiao-peng (1994), op. cit., pp.131-132.)

B27“專門收集有關小說記錄的第一本類書《太平廣記》的編纂,象征宋初并未將志怪看作小說的最后一個證據這與歐陽修將志怪排除《新唐書·史部》可作一比較。The compilation of the Tai-ping kuang-chi,the first anthology explicitly engaged in the gathering of hsio-shuo,in the same sense marks the final rejection of the chih-kuai as history in the early Sung, and coincides with Ou-yang Hsius expunging of the shih-pu(史部 histories) in the Hsin Tang-shu of chih-kuai material.”(See DeWoskin, Kenneth J., op. cit., p.48.)

B28“This is indicated by several facts first,the treatment of fictional biographies as a literary genre alongside other literary genres in the Wen-yüan ying-hua:second,the compilation of the special hsiao-shuo anthology,the Tai-ping kuang-chi:and third,the nature of the title listed in the hsiao-shuo section of the Hsin Tang-shu, which come close to the modern conception of fiction.”(See Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1994), op. cit., p.132.)

B29“Having in mind Confuciuss remark about innovation and transmission, Sima Qian was saying that his writing of Shiji was not innovation. But his insistence that he should not be compared with Confucius(whom he considered an innovator) seems to subvert Confuciussdisclaimer of originality and ultimately his own. (Of course, both Confucius and Sima Qian are considered to be among the most innovative figure in Chinese history.) ” Huang, Martin Weizong, “Dehistoricization and Intertextualization The Anxiety of Precedents in the Evolution of the Traditional Chinese Novel脫歷史化和互文性化:在中國傳統小說發展上的因先例而不安”, CLEAR 12, 1990. p.46.

B30“So, the greater the aesthetic and technical achievement, the more the creative individual was thought to be in command of the past, or under command of the past―for they were the same thing. ”Frederic W. Mote,“The Art and the ‘Theorizing Mode of theCivilization 藝術與文明的”理論化樣式, Christian F. Murck ed. ,Uses of the Past in Chinese Culture: Artists and Traditions(Princeton university Press, 1976. p.7. 轉引自黃衛總,同上書,第46頁)

B31何景明對韓愈的評論,激怒了若干評論家的實例可參見劉大杰的《中國文學發展史》(上海古籍出版社,1982年版第901頁)

B32“A major constituents of the research in the area of traditional Chinese fiction has been what is called ‘source study,‘influence study,or ‘derivation study which attempts to establish textual connections between works of fiction and the earlier works from the same or a different generic tradition. ” (See Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng, "The Fictional Discourse of Pien-wen: The Relation of Chinese fiction to Historiography", CLEAR 9, 1987. p.49.)

B33“Very often in the case of Chinese fiction, retrogressive searches ultimately come back to the the tradition of historical writings or historiography which is chronologically the ‘origin and ‘antecedent of the much later fictional narrative literature.”(See Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1987), op. cit., p.49-50.)

據說,經常以“索隱”名目被稱呼的這種研究傾向,依照魯曉鵬的主張,賦予在“中國的文言傳統”與“整個中國文化之內存續高度的持續性和統一性”的印象?!癟he evidence of the happy linkage of the two essential modes of Chinese narrative leaves one with the impression that there exits a great continuity and uniformity within the Chinese literary tradition and Chinese culture at large.”(See Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng(1987) , op. cit., p.50.)

B34“for a culture as old as the Chinese, it may be expected that Sinology is often haunted by a nostalgia for origin and motivated toward hunting for direct, factual sources.” (See Lu, Sheldon Hsiapeng(1987), op. cit., p.50.)

B35“Forms of traditional, positivistic adaptation/derivation studies often go back to historiography for the final location of textual sources and the basis of subsequent literary inspiration. for the better or worse, these studies unavoidably picture a process of reduction towards tradition and continuity in accountiong for the mechanism of textual formation and variations. The productive and creative instances of fictional discourse are subjugated to the techniques of mnemonics and creative instances of the past.”(See Lu,Sheldon Hsiao-peng (1987), op. cit., p.52.)

B36“This, according to Collingwood, is ‘the renacment of past thought in the historians mind. ……they certainly acknowledge with him the necessity of the constructive imagination in in writing a history. ”(Yu, Anthony C. 余國藩, "History,Fiction and the Reading of Chinese Narrative", CLEAR 10, 1988. p.5.)

B37“This discourse itself is the actual combination of facts and meaning which gives to it the aspect of a specific structure of meaning that permits us to identify it as a product of one kindof historical consciousness rather than another. ”(See Yu, Anthony C. 余國藩, op. cit., p.6.)

B38“This is, in fact,how White explains Collingwoods understanding of the constructive imagination,……was both a priori(which meant that it did not act capriciously) and structural (which meant that it was governed by notions of formal coherency in its constitution of possible object of thought). which for the latter”(See Yu, Anthony C. 余國藩, op. cit., p.6.)

[參考文獻]

[1]張振軍.傳統小說與中國文化[M].桂林:廣西師范大學出版社,1996.

[2]葛洪.神仙傳·自序[M]∥黃霖,韓同文,選注.中國歷代小說論著選:(上).南昌:江西人民出版社,1982:14.

[3]干寶.搜神記序[M]∥黃霖,韓同文,選注.中國歷代小說論著選:(上).南昌:江西人民出版社,1982:20.

[4]劉知幾.史通·雜述[M]∥黃霖,韓同文,選注.中國歷代小說論著選:(上).南昌:江西人民出版社,1982:33.

[5]金容沃.駱駝祥子[M].首爾:Tongnamu,1997:167.

[6]安正燻.中國古代小說觀念與起源研究[D].首爾:首爾大學,1997.

[7]石昌渝.中國小說源流論[M].北京:三聯書店,1993.

[8]司馬遷.史記[M].北京:中華書局,1972:3299-3300.

[9]Huang, Martin Weizong. Uses of the Past in Chinese Culture:Artists and Traditions[M].Princeton:Princeton University Press,1976:48-49.

(責任編輯 文 格)

Abstract:The concern about the relationships between history and fiction can be described as one of the efforts that illustrate the origin of Chinese novel. In this thesis, I will explain the reason and meaning of the tradition of historiography of Chinese fiction being treated as an important thing. The reason that history and fiction can be easily identified in China and Europe is mainly due to the formal features of both. In an early stage, fictions were not distinguished from history, but gradually diverged from history as time went by. This trend, however, evoked the returning to antiquity and imitation of the ancients in the Chinese literary tradition. The restoring antiquity that can be called the nostalgia to the originality always fretted the descendants to do their efforts of relieving their anxiety for precedence. Consequently, it might be impossible to discuss the relationship between history and fiction without both being separated.

Key words:historiography;originality;restoring antiquity or returning to antiquity;canon;constructive imagination

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