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近二十年來英語學術界有關中國海上絲綢之路史研究的新趨向*

2024-01-26 04:49安樂博馬光
海交史研究 2023年3期
關鍵詞:海盜東南亞海洋

[美]安樂博 馬光

提及絲綢之路,大部分人腦海中都會浮現出大漠駝隊行走在中歐陸上絲綢之路上的情景。然而,與陸上絲綢之路并駕齊驅的,還有另外一條同樣古老、同樣重要的海上絲綢之路。(1)本文初稿完成于2019年,后略有增訂,限于篇幅,本文主要以2000-2020年間英語相關作品為討論對象。英語學術界通常主要關注陸上海上絲綢之路。例如:James Millward (米華健),The Silk Road:A Very Short Introduction,New York:Oxford University Press,2013;Valerie Hansen (韓森),The Silk Road:A New History,New York:Oxford University Press,2015;Peter Frankopan (弗蘭科潘),The Silk Roads:A New History of the World,New York:Oxford University Press,2016。2010年,劉欣如所著The Silk Road in World History (New York:Oxford University Press,2010)是個例外,該書對海上絲綢之路有所涉及。將其稱之為海上絲綢之路,或許略為不當,因為事實上,在古代中國海洋貿易中最重要的商品是瓷器,而非絲綢。盡管如此,這一術語還是被廣為接受,尤其是2013年10月習近平主席提出“21世紀海上絲綢之路”的倡議構想后,變得更為流行。習主席展望了這條從中國到東南亞,再到印度甚至更遠處的新海洋經濟帶的發展趨勢。按照這一倡議構想的設計,中國將與外界進行貿易、金融、外交、科技和文化等多方面的交流與合作。(2)習近平講話的英譯,可參考:“Speech by Chinese President Xi Jinping to Indonesian Parliament”,online at www.asean-china-center.org/english/2013-10/03/c_133062675.htm (accessed 3 March 2017).這一倡議,并非憑空想象,而是有著深刻的歷史淵源。

亞洲海洋史研究,或被中國學者稱為海上絲綢之路的研究,如今已成為歷史學家最為關注的熱門議題之一。(3)有關中國海洋史的早期研究論著,可以參考:Robert Gardella(加德拉),“The Maritime History of Late Imperial China:Observations on Current Concerns and Recent Research”,Late Imperial China Vol.6,No.2 (1985),pp.48-66;Chang Pin-tsun(張彬村),“Maritime China in Historical Perspective”,International Journal of Maritime History Vol.4,No.2 (1992),pp.239-55;Lai Chi-kong (黎志剛),“The Historiography of Maritime China since c.1975”,in Frank Broeze ed.,Maritime History at the Crossroads:A Critical Review of Recent Historiography,Liverpool:Liverpool University Press,1995,pp.53-80;近期論著,可參考:Harriet Zurndorfer (宋漢理),“Oceans of History,Seas of Change:Recent Revisionist Writing in Western Languages about China and East Asian Maritime History during the Period 1500-1630”,International Journal of Asian Studies Vol.13,No.1 (2016),pp.61-94.有關東南亞海洋史的論著,可參考:Geoff Wade (韋杰夫),“The Pre-Modern East Asian Maritime Realm:An Overview of European-Language Studies”,National University of Singapore,Asia Research Institute Working Paper Series No.16,2003.事實上,不單是歷史學家,考古學家、人類學家、地理學家、社會學家和政治學家同樣也在重新探索中國海洋史研究。最近,學術界出現了“范式轉變”的潮流。中國古代海洋,不再被視為邊緣或次要的區域。(4)最近兩部中國新海洋史的代表作,對傳統觀點提出了挑戰,參見:Zheng Yangwen (鄭揚文),China on the Sea:How the Maritime World Shaped Modern China,Leiden:Brill,2012;Gang Zhao (趙剛),The Qing Opening to the Ocean:Chinese Maritime Policies,1684-1757,Honolulu:University of Hawaii Press,2013.新的研究范式,以廣泛利用各種各樣的資料,如考古文物、文學作品、官方文件、日記、碑刻、圖像、民族志田野調查和語言證據等為主要特點。以往的研究,學者們沉溺于歐洲中心論或中國中心論的研究模式,常將中國與西方簡單地二元對立。然而,當代學者已跳出這種舊的研究藩籬,將歐洲人視為眾多外來者中的一個群體,從而探索西方是如何遵守和適應亞洲本已建立起來的成熟模式和慣例。(5)Zurndorfer,“Oceans of History,Seas of Change”,pp.62-63.這種新趨勢,為開辟新的課題鋪平了道路。如今,亞洲海洋史研究的范圍非常寬廣,如海洋考古、港口城市、航線、貿易和文化網絡、移民、地方宗教信仰、海洋法、外交、海防、海盜和走私等,均有涉及。

南海,擁有370萬平方公里的遼闊海域。從中國南部到東南亞,大大小小的島嶼星羅棋布,南海、北部灣、泰國灣、蘇祿海、西里伯斯海和爪哇海分布其間,構成了邊界緩沖地帶。這片海域,是多種文明交匯的十字路口。Craig Lockard教授敏銳地指出,南海不但是中國航海者的活動場所,同時也是東南亞、印度、阿拉伯半島、波斯、葡萄牙、西班牙、荷蘭、法國和英國等國航海者的聚集地。(6)Craig A.Lockard,“‘The Sea Common to All’:Maritime Frontiers,Port Cities,and Chinese Traders in the Southeast Asian Age of Commerce,ca.1400-1750”,Journal of World History,Vol.21,No.2 (2010),pp.219-247;Craig A.Lockard,Southeast Asia in World History,New York:Oxford University Press,2009.過去幾千年,南海航線縱橫交錯,從一個島嶼到另外一個島嶼,從一個港口到另外一個港口,密如網織。通過南海,中國、日本、琉球群島和東南亞等地得以聯通印度洋,甚至到達更遠處的紅海和地中海。(7)有關航線問題,可參考Roderich Ptak (普塔克),“Jottings on Chinese Sailing Routes to Southeast Asia,Especially on the Eastern Route in Ming Times”,in Roderich Ptak ed.,China,the Portuguese,and the Nanyang,Aldershot:Ashgate,2004;Karl Reinhold Haellquist ed.,Asian Trade Routes,Copenhagen and London:Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies and Curzon Press,1991;Paul Van Dyke(范岱克),“New Sea Routes to Canton in the 18th Century and the Decline of China’s Control over Trade”,Haiyang shi yanjiu (《海洋史研究》),No.1 (2010),pp.57-108.有關中國與伊斯蘭的文化交流,可參考:Hyunhee Park (樸賢熙),Mapping the Chinese and Islamic Worlds:Cross-Cultural Exchange in Pre-Modern Asia,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2012.

考古研究表明,早在歐洲人出現在南海之前,這片海域就已是充滿活力的交錯之地。1998年,印度尼西亞沿海發現了一艘9世紀的阿拉伯沉船。值得注意的是,沉船上載有7萬件由穆斯林所定制的中國陶瓷器。毫無疑問,這是中國和西印度洋直接貿易的有力證據。這艘沉船還載有大量西亞制造的商品,表明該船可能從當時的室利佛逝(三佛齊)出發。(8)Michael Flecker,“A Ninth-Century Arab Shipwreck in Indonesia:The First Archaeological Evidence of Direct Trade with China”,in Regina Krahl ,John Guy,and Julian Raby eds.,Shipwrecked:Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds,Washington and Singapore:Arthur M.Sackler Gallery and National Heritage and Tourism Board,2010,pp.101-119 (online at www.asia.si.edu/Shipwrecked/downloads /07Flecker.pdf,accessed 5 March 2017);Denis Twitchett (崔瑞德)and Janice Stargardt (思鑒),“Chinese Silver Bullion in a Tenth-century Indonesian Shipwreck”,Asia Major,3rd Series,Vol.15,No.1 (2002),pp.23-72.其它相關的海洋考古發現,可參考:Jeremy Green (格林),“The Song Dynasty Shipwreck at Quanzhou,Fujian,People’s Republic of China”,International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration Vol.12,No.3 (1983),pp.253-261;Sayan Prishanchit,Maritime Trade During the 14th to 17th Century:Evidence from the Underwater Archaeological Sites in the Gulf of Thailand,Bangkok:Office of the National Culture Division,1996;Pierre-Yves Manguin (莽甘),“The Archaeology of the Early Maritime Polities of Southeast Asia”,in Peter Bellwood and Ian C.Glover eds.,Southeast Asia:From Prehistory to History,London:Routledge Curzon,2004,pp.283-313;Jun Kimura(木村淳),“Maritime Archaeological Perspectives on Seaborne Trade in the South China Sea and East China Sea between the Seventh and Thirteenth Centuries”,Crossroads:Studies on the History of Exchange Relations in the East Asian World Vol.11 (2015),pp.47-61.

歷史文獻和考古發現都表明,早在漢代之前,中國就已經與東南亞、南亞等地有著頻繁的間接貿易往來。徐聞、合浦、日南以及北海灣附近的商業區域發揮著重要作用。(9)James Chin (錢江),“Ports,Merchants,Chieftains and Eunuchs:Reading Maritime Commerce of Early Guangdong”,in Geoff Wade ed.,China and Southeast Asia:Routledge Library on Southeast Asia,Vol.1,Introduction and History to the 14th Century,London:Routledge,2009,pp.55-74;Li Tana (李塔娜),“Jiaozhi (Giao Chi)in the Han Period Tongking Gulf”,in Nola Cooke,Li Tana,and James A.Anderson eds.,The Tongking Gulf Through History,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2011,pp.39-52.最近,Judith Cameron將長途海運的歷史向前推至史前時期,并提出“史前海上絲綢之路”的概念。她認為,現存的有力證據表明,史前時期,從南海到印度洋再到馬達加斯加,存在著一系列相互重合和交叉的貿易區域。她指出,考古發現表明,諸多歷史時期的貿易路線建立在史前路線基礎之上。(10)Judith Cameron,“A Prehistoric Maritime Silk Road:Merchants,Boats,Cloth and Jade”,in Robert Antony and Angela Schottenhammer eds.,Beyond the Silk Roads:New Discourses on China’s Role in East Asian Maritime History,Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag,2017,pp.25-42.

從9世紀開始,中國參與國際事務的活動開始增多。中國商人不再局限于充當中間商的角色,而是逐漸對外展開直接貿易。這一現象,在10世紀之后,更加明顯。伴隨著城市、市場和貨幣經濟的發展,宋代開始了一場商業革命,東南沿海的表現尤為突出。(11)Angela Schottenhammer,“China’s Rise and Retreat as a Maritime Power”,in Antony and Schottenhammer (eds.),Beyond the Silk Roads,pp.189-212;John W.Chaffee,“Song China and the Multi-state and Commercial World of East Asia”,Crossroads-Studies on the History of Exchange Relations in the East Asian World,Vol.1/2 (2010).泉州、廣州已明顯呈現出國際化大都市的特征,來自伊朗、阿拉伯、印度和東南亞的商人在此居住生活,形成離散社區。(12)有關泉州的研究,可參考:John Chaffee(賈志揚),“At the Intersection of Empire and World Trade:The Chinese Port City of Quanzhou (Zaitun),Eleventh-Fifteenth Centuries”,in Kenneth R.Hall ed.,Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm,c.1400 -1800,Lanham:Lexington Books,2008,pp.99-121;Hugh R.Clark (柯胡),“Overseas Trade and Social Change in Quanzhou through the Song”,in Angela Schottenhammer ed.,The Emporium of the World:Maritime Quanzhou,1000-1400,Leiden:Brill,2001,pp.47-94;Chen Dasheng (陳達生)and Denys Lombard (龍巴爾),“Foreign Merchants in Maritime Trade in Quanzhou (‘Zaitun’):Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries”,in Denys Lombard and Jean Aubin eds.,Asian Merchants and Businessmen in the Indian Ocean and the China Sea,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2000,pp.19-24;Billy So (蘇基朗),Prosperity,Region,and Institutions in Maritime China:The South Fukien Pattern,946-1368,Cambridge:Harvard University Asia Center,2000.有關早期廣州的研究,可參考:Lo Hsiang-lin (羅香林),“Islam in Canton in the Sung Period:Some Fragmentary Records”,in F.S.Drake ed.,Symposium on Historical,Archeological and Linguistic Studies on Southern China,South-East Asia and the Hong Kong Region,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,1967;James Chin,“Ports,Merchants,Chieftains and Eunuchs”;Adam Fong (許文富),“‘Together They Might Make Trouble’:Cross-Cultural Interactions in Tang Dynasty Guangzhou,618-907 c.e.,” Journal of World History,Vol.25,No.4 (2014),pp.475-492;Adam Fong,“Flourishing on the Frontier:Trade and Urbanization in Tang Dynasty Guangzhou,618-907 CE” (PhD dissertation,University of Hawaii,2009).有關中國穆斯林社區的研究,可參考:John Chaffee,“Diasporic Identities in the Historical Development of the Maritime Muslim Communities of Song-Yuan China”,Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient,Vol.49,No.4 (2006),pp.395-420;Hugh R.Clark,“Muslims and Hindus in the Culture and Morphology of Quanzhou from the Tenth to the Thirteenth Centuries”,Journal of World History Vol.6,No.1 (1995),pp.49-74.中國商人、其他亞洲商人和歐洲商人,通過連接南海和印度洋海外社區之間的貿易網絡,展開了大規模的跨區域貿易。(13)Angela Schottenhammer,“China’s Gate to the Indian Ocean:Iranian and Arab Long-Distance Traders”,Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Vol.76,No.1 (2016),pp.135-179;Richard von Glahn (萬志英),“The Ningbo-Hakata Merchant Network and the Reorientation of East Asian Maritime Trade,1150-1350”,Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Vol.74,No.2 (2014),pp.249-279;Tansen Sen(沈丹森),“The Formation of Chinese Maritime Networks to Southern Asia,1200-1450”,Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient Vol.49,No.4 (2006),pp.421-53;Derek Heng (王添順),Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century,Athens,OH:Ohio University Press,2009.Franck Billé,Sanjyot Mehendale,and James Lankton eds.,The Maritime Silk Road:Global Connectivities,Regional Nodes,Localities,Amsterdam:University of Amsterdam Press,2022.賈志揚(John Chaffee)對著名的中國穆斯林蒲氏富商家族進行了詳細研究。宋元時期,作為海商和地方官,蒲氏在泉州政治和經濟事務中扮演著重要角色。泉州蒲氏家族與越南、海南島的蒲氏家族有著密切的商業往來。(14)John Chaffee,“Pu Shougeng Reconsidered:Pu,His Family,and their Role in the Maritime Trade of Quanzhou”,in Antony and Schottenhammer eds.,Beyond the Silk Roads,pp.63-76;Li Tana,“A View from the Sea:Perspectives on the Northern and Central Vietnamese Coast”,Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Vol.37,No.1 (2006),pp.93-94.

過去相當長一段時間內,西方學術界大都集中關注元代陸上絲綢之路和中歐之間的陸上經濟往來,而較少細致研究元代海洋史。然而,事實上,元代政府同樣也非常積極鼓勵中國與外界的海洋貿易和宗教文化交流。為招徠朝貢和貿易,元代統治者派出了眾多外交和貿易使團奔赴海外各地,甚至遠至印度。(15)Tansen Sen,“The Yuan Khanate and India:Cross-Cultural Diplomacy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries”,Asia Major,3rd Series Vol.19,No.1-2 (2006),pp.299-326.盡管元朝政府在1285-1325年間曾偶爾禁止海外貿易和旅行,但之后卻極大放寬了海洋政策。人類學家魏澤福(Jack Weatherford)指出,作為新開放政策的一部分,成吉思汗同樣提倡宗教自由,并幫助伊斯蘭教、佛教、道教、儒教、天主教和瑣羅亞斯德教(祆教)在他廣闊的歐亞帝國傳播。(16)Jack Weatherford,Genghis Khan and the Quest for God:How the World’s Greatest Conqueror Gave Us Religious Freedom,New York:Viking,2016;Richard Foltz,Religions of the Silk Road:Premodern Patterns of Globalization,2nd ed.,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2010.然而,與此同時,元朝又不斷加緊對日本和越南的軍事征服行動。(17)Schottenhammer,“China’s Rise and Retreat as a Maritime Power”,pp.200-202.Randall J.Sasaki,The Origins of the Lost Fleet of the Mongol Empire,College Station,TX:Texas A&M University Press,2015.對于元朝中央統治者來講,海洋貿易和海外征服,似乎可以同時進行,并行不悖。最近,在對山東海洋史的研究中,馬光強調了元朝開展海洋活動的重要性,并對元末明初倭寇、中國與朝鮮半島之間的私人貿易等問題進行了深入探討。(18)Ma Guang (馬光),“Tributary Ceremony and National Security:A Reassessment of Wokou Diplomacy between China and Japan during the Early Ming Dynasty”,Journal of Asian History,Vol.51,No.1 (2017),pp.27-54;Rupture,Evolution and Continuity:The Shandong Peninsula in East Asian Maritime History During the Yuan-Ming Transition,Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz,2021.

傳統史學界認為,明朝一改前朝海洋開放政策,轉而實行嚴厲的海禁政策,只允許朝貢貿易。然而,最近一些學者認為,明朝海洋貿易事實上并非一潭死水,而是有其繁榮的一面,這種狀況,甚至一直持續到清前期。直到1800年前后,才出現了所謂的中西“大分流”。(19)有關明代海洋政策,可參考:Li Kangying (李康英),The Ming Maritime Trade Policy in Transition,1368 to 1567,Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag,2010.有關“大分流”及其討論,可參考:Kenneth Pomeranz(彭慕蘭),The Great Divergence:China,Europe,and the Making of the Modern World Economy,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2000;Jean-Laurent Rosenthal and R.Bin Wong,Before and Beyond Divergence:The Politics of Economic Change in China and Europe,Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2011;Peer Vries,“The California School and Beyond:How to Study the Great Divergence?”,History Compass Vol.8,No.7 (2010),pp.730-751;Robert Eng (伍健民),“From ‘The West and the Rest’ to Global Interconnectedness:China Historians and the Transformation of World History as a Discipline”,ASIANetwork Exchange,Vol.22,No.2 (2015),pp.35-48.Angela Schottenhammer,China and the Silk Roads (ca.100 BCE to 1800 CE),Leiden:Brill,2023.趙剛、布琮任通過對清代海洋史的考察,認為清代的海洋政策并非消極被動以致充滿防御性,而是有其積極、務實和靈活的一面。(20)Gang Zhao,The Qing Opening to the Ocean:Chinese Maritime Policies,1684-1757;Ronald C.Po (布琮任),The Blue Frontier:Maritime Vision and Power in the Qing Empire,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2018.大致與此同時,16世紀至17世紀早期,日本和東南亞同樣也開始在蓬勃發展的世界經濟中占據更加重要的地位。事實上,德川時期,日本將自己視為亞洲中心,開啟“日本中心”模式,這一度挑戰了中國長期以來在亞洲的主導地位,萌發了日本自身的國家認同意識。(21)有關德川幕府時期日本的新世界觀,可參考:Arano Yasunori (荒野泰典),“The Formation of a Japanocentric World Order”,International Journal of Asian Studies Vol.2,No.2 (2005),pp.185-216.有關近世日本對太平洋和海洋亞洲的精彩論述,可參考:Marcia Yonemoto,“Maps and Metaphors of the ‘Small Eastern Sea’ in Tokugawa Japan (1603-1868)”,Geographical Review Vol.89,No.2 (1999),pp.169-187.有關東南亞的情況,可參考:Lockard,Southeast Asia in World History,Chapter 4.

明朝與清前期,海外貿易只允許在朝貢體系中進行,所以大部分的海外貿易只能秘密進行。然而,朝貢體系并非天衣無縫。為方便監督日本進貢的商品,中國政府雇傭一批私人掮客參與其事,掮客則借機與官員和商人串通勾結,從事盈利的半合法私人貿易活動。(22)Angela Schottenhammer,“‘Brokers’ and ‘Guild’ (huiguan)Organizations in China’s Maritime Trade with her Eastern Neighbours during the Ming and Qing Dynasties”,Crossroads:Studies on the History of Exchange Relations in the East Asian World,Vol.1 (2010),pp.108-113;Oláh Csaba,“Chinese Brokers and Sino-Japanese Trade during the Ming Period - A Case Study from 1539”,in Angela Schottenhammer ed.,Tribute,Trade and Smuggling:Commercial,Scientific and Human Interaction in the Middle Period and Early Modern World,Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag,2014,pp.23-39.需要指出的是,大部分的海上貿易仍由來自各國的走私者和海盜主導。彼時,中國官方將這些海盜稱為倭寇。其實,眾所周知,這些非法之徒中,除日本海盜之外,很多都是中國的商人,如王(汪)直、洪迪珍、鄭芝龍等,其他則為東南亞、歐洲及非洲的船員、商人和冒險家。(23)Kwan-wai So (蘇均煒),Japanese Piracy in Ming China during the Sixteenth Century,East Lansing:Michigan State University Press,1975,該書雖出版較早,但至今仍有學術價值。有關中國對倭寇的想象,可參考:Wang Yong,“Realistic and Fantastic Images of ‘Dwarf Pirates’:The Evolution of Ming Dynasty Perceptions of the Japanese”,in Joshua Fogel ed.,Sagacious Monks and Bloodthirsty Warriors:Chinese Views of Japan in the Ming-Qing Period,Norwalk,CT:East Bridge,2002,pp.17-41.最近西方對中國海盜的歷史研究述評,可參考:Patrick Connolly (余康力)and Robert Antony,“‘A Terrible Scourge’:Piracy,Coastal Defense,and the Historian”,in Teddy Y.H.Sim ed.,The Maritime Defence of China:Ming General Qi Jiguang and Beyond,Singapore:Springer,2017.一些貿易是在浙江、福建、廣東等地的偏僻小港口進行,但大部分貿易是在眾多近海島上進行,如雙嶼、南澳、龍門、潿洲等。這些島嶼是各國走私者、海盜、商人的聚集地。在這里,他們的交易可以避開官府的監管。(24)James Chin,“Merchants,Smugglers,and Pirates:Multinational Clandestine Trade on the South China Coast,1520-50”,pp.43-57;Maria Grazia Petrucci,“Pirates,Gunpowder,and Christianity in Late Sixteenth-Century Japan”,pp.59-72,both in Robert J.Antony ed.,Elusive Pirates,Pervasive Smugglers:Violence and Clandestine Trade in the Greater China Seas,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2010.有關這一時期中越水域邊境的貿易商和海盜的研究,可參考:Robert J.Antony,“War,Trade,and Piracy in Early Modern Gulf of Tonkin”,in Schottenhammer ed.,Tribute,Trade,and Smuggling,pp.77-94;Xing Hang (杭行),“Leizhou Pirates and the Making of the Mekong Delta”,in Antony and Schottenhammer eds.,Beyond the Silk Roads,pp.115-132.歐陽泰(Tonio Andrade)指出,鄭芝龍及其繼承者,以福建和臺灣為基地,通過對中國、日本、荷蘭和巴達維亞等地統治者、官員和商人的嫻熟控制,建立了橫跨南海的龐大海洋帝國。他認為,如果把海盜問題置于全球史這一更大的框架下去考察,將有助于我們進一步理解海盜與國家間的交互作用是如何幫助歐洲進行擴張的。(25)Tonio Andrade,“The Company’s Chinese Pirates:How the Dutch East India Company Tried to Lead a Coalition of Privateers to War against China”,Journal of World History,Vol.15 (2004),pp.415-44.近期對鄭氏家族的其它研究成果,可參考:Patrizia Carioti (白蒂),“The Zhengs’ Maritime Power in the Context of the 17th Century Far Eastern Seas:The Rise of a ‘Centralized Piratical Organization’ and Its Gradual Development into a ‘State’”,Ming-Qing Yanjiu,Vol.5 (1996);Cheng Wei-chung (鄭維中),War,Trade and Piracy in the China Seas,1622-1683,Leiden:Brill,2013;Xing Hang,Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia:The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World,1620-1720,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2016.

許多活躍在中國沿海的日本海盜,亦盜亦商。有時,他們受到日本地方官員甚至國家統治者的支持。正如Maria Grazia Petrucci所言,早期薩摩大名和德川幕府一邊采取措施鎮壓國內海盜,一邊卻又允許外國海盜集團取代他們。平戶作為日本的重要港口,是日本、中國、荷蘭和英國等國海盜、走私者、商人活動的國際大本營,各色人物混雜于此,難以區分。Adam Clulow對平戶海盜的研究,進一步豐富了我們對這一時期海盜活動的理解。正如同時代的中國人和歐洲人一樣,日本商人也積極地將他們的觸角伸向東南亞港口和市場。有時,他們和海盜并無二致。(26)Maria Grazia Petrucci,“Caught Between Piracy and Trade:The Shimazu of Southern Japan at the Onset of the New Tokugawa Regime,1599-1630”,in Antony and Schottenhammer eds.,Beyond the Silk Roads,pp.99-114;Adam Clulow,“The Pirate and the Warlord”,Journal of Early Modern History,Vol.16 (2012),pp.523-542;Adam Clulow,“Like Lambs in Japan and Devils Outside Their Land:Diplomacy,Violence,and Japanese Merchants in Southeast Asia”,Journal of World History Vol.24,No.2 (2013),pp.335-358;Igawa Kenji,“At the Crossroads:Limahon and Wakō in Sixteenth-Century Philippines”,in Antony ed.,Elusive Pirates,Pervasive Smugglers,pp.73-84.

自16世紀起,葡萄牙和西班牙開始進入亞洲。隨后,荷蘭、英國等國家也接踵而至。此時的亞洲貿易網絡已相當成熟,作為后來者,為了生存和獲利,他們被迫尋求融入這一網絡的方式。事實上,大部分商船就是一座浮動的軍械庫,船上的武器裝備遠超和平貿易所需的配置。16世紀50年代,葡萄牙開始在澳門站穩腳跟。葡萄牙商人不僅參與貿易,而且還時常搶劫村莊,擄掠或購買兒童,將之再轉手賣為奴隸。(27)例如,Lúcio de Sousa (蘇札),The Jewish Diaspora and the Perez Family Case in China,Japan,the Philippines,and the Americas (16th Century),Macau:Macau Foundation,2015;James Fujitani,“The Ming Rejection of the Portuguese Embassy of 1517:A Reassessment”,Journal of World History Vol.27,No.1 (2016),pp.99-101.Ubaldo Iaccarino指出,當西班牙到達亞洲時,他們帶著大無畏征服者的精神,試圖用他們在新世界所使用過的暴力方式,去掠取中國的財富。隨后,荷蘭和英國東印度公司也準備使用暴力去打開市場和消滅敵人。事實上,荷蘭人在日本開展貿易時,以掠奪方式獲取了大量的絲綢、緞子和瓷器。在帝國擴張時期,暴力行為不但被歐洲人,而且被亞洲人所認可,甚至被認為這是必要手段。(28)Timothy Brook (卜正民),The Confusions of Pleasure:Commerce and Culture in Ming China,Berkeley:University of California Press,1998,pp.122-123;Robert J.Antony,“Turbulent Waters:Sea Raiding in Early Modern South East Asia”,Mariner’s Mirror Vol.99,No.1 (2013),pp.25-27;Adam Clulow,The Company and the Shogun:The Dutch Encounter with Tokugawa Japan,New York:Columbia University Press,2014,Part 2;Anne Pérotin-Dumon,“The Pirate and the Emperor:Power and the Law on the Seas,1450-1850”,in C.R.Pennell ed.,Bandits at Sea:A Pirates Reader,New York:New York University Press,2001,pp.25-54.

無疑,這些暴力行為造成了政治、經濟和社會方面的緊張局勢。盡管如此,它卻加速了互相交織的國際經濟體系的形成。在這個體系中,南海成為“歐亞貿易網絡的核心”。(29)Lockard,“The Sea Common to All”,pp.226-227.同時,也可參考:John Lee,“Trade and Economy in Preindustrial East Asia,ca.1500-ca.1800:East Asia in the Age of Global Integration”,Journal of Asian Studies Vol.58,No.1 (1999),pp.2-26.17世紀后期,所有的歐亞地區都被卷入了深不見底的中國市場和新興世界經濟。(30)Jerry H.Bentley (本特利),“Sea and Ocean Basins as Frameworks of Historical Analysis”,Geographical Review,Vol.89 (1999),pp.220-221;James Warren,The Sulu Zone,1768-1898:The Dynamics of External Trade,Slavery,and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State,Singapore:National University of Singapore Press,1981;James Warren,Iranun and Balangingi:Globalization,Maritime Raiding and the Birth of Ethnicity,Singapore:National University of Singapore Press,2003.數量巨大的新世界白銀跨過大西洋,到達馬尼拉,然后又被運到中國,用于交易絲綢、瓷器、茶葉和其它商品。隨著中國經濟的發展,中國對東南亞商品,尤其是異域美味,如燕窩、魚翅、海參,還有珍珠、龜殼、胡椒、丁香、糖、米和錫等,需求量大增。歐洲商人也積極收求同樣的當地產品,然后再轉手賣到中國。印度的鴉片在東南亞、中國和日本等地開始盛行。這里不僅是貨物的聚散地,同時也是世界各地人民的流動場所。(31)Carl Smith (施其樂)and Paul Van Dyke,“Armenian Footprints in Macao”,Review of Culture,International Edition,Vol.8 (2003),pp.20-39;“Four Armenian Families”,Review of Culture,International Edition,Vol.8 (2003),pp.40-50;“Muslims in the Pearl River Delta,1700 to 1930”,Review of Culture,International Edition,Vol.10 (2004),pp.6-15.1684年,中國解除海禁后,大量來自廣東和福建的移民,寓居于此。這種狀況,一直持續到19世紀末。隨著東南亞中國移民的增加,中國的茶葉、瓷器、居家用品等商品也逐漸增多,用于滿足日益增長的市場需求。東亞的其他商品,也流向印度洋、歐洲和美洲。(32)對商品流動的研究,可參考:Paul Wheatley (鮑威里),“Geographical Notes on Some Commodities Involved in Sung Maritime Trade”,Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,Vol.32,No.2 (1959),pp.4-5129;Rodrich Ptak,“China and the Trade in Cloves,circa 960-1435”,Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol.113,No.1 (1993),pp.1-13;David Bulbeck,Anthony Reid(瑞德),Lay Cheng Tan,and Yi Qi Wu eds.,Southeast Asian Exports since the Fourteenth Century:Cloves,Pepper,Coffee,and Sugar,Leiden:KITLV Press,1998;Eric Tagliacozzo,“A Necklace of Fins:Marine Goods Trading in Maritime Southeast Asia,1780-1860”,International Journal of Asian Studies Vol.1,No.1 (2004),pp.23-48;Eric Tagliacozzo and Wen-Chin Chang (eds.),Chinese Circulations:Capital,Commodities,and Networks in Southeast Asia,Durham:Duke University Press,2011.Tamara H.Bentley ed.,Picturing Commerce in and from the East Asian Maritime Circuits,1550-1800,Amsterdam:Amsterdam University Press,2019.有關中國移民的研究,可參考:Wang Gungwu (王賡武),China and the Chinese Overseas,Singapore:Times Academic Press,1991;Philip A.Kuhn (孔飛力),Chinese among Others:Emigration in Modern Times,Lanham:Rowman and Littlefield,2008;Chen Boyi (陳博翼),“The Hokkien in Early Modern Hoi An,Batavia,and Manila:Political Agendas and Selective Adaptions,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Vol.52,No.1 (2021),pp.67-89.

從以上分析可以看到,目前英語學術界對亞洲海洋史的研究興趣有增無減,在研究的廣度和深度上,都有所進展。一方面,學術界不斷發掘和利用新資料,廣泛利用文物、碑刻、圖像、語言證據等傳統學者不太重視的資料,并重視田野調查在研究中的作用。另一方面,學術界逐漸轉變研究視角和范式,開始跳出歐洲中心論和中國中心論的簡單二元對立研究模式的束縛,從全球史角度對亞洲海洋史進行考察,尤其重視考察來自多個國家或地區的不同群體之間的交流和相互影響。

在漫長的歷史時期,通過陸上絲綢之路和海上絲綢之路,中國曾深度參與外面世界的活動。早在16世紀歐洲人到來之前,南海在相當長的一段時間內,就是中國、日本、東南亞、南亞和穆斯林航海者的國際接觸地帶,甚至在更早的史前時期,航海者就已開創航海路線,為后來航海者和商人的航線奠定了基礎。

今天,中國的“一帶一路”倡議正在追尋和恢復歷史上的先例,并試圖建造一個跨越歐亞大陸及其周邊地區的全球網絡。通過大規模的投資,中國著力發展以中國為中心的貿易、文化和科技網絡,以求在國際事務中扮演更重要的角色。

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